Remember:

What is the sensory system called?

Answer. The sensory system is a part of the nervous system responsible for the perception of certain signals (so-called sensory stimuli) from the external or internal environment. The sensory system consists of receptors, neural pathways and parts of the brain responsible for processing received signals. The most well-known sensory systems are vision, hearing, touch, taste and smell. Using the sensory system you can feel such physical properties, such as temperature, taste, sound or pressure.

Analyzers are also called sensory systems. The concept of “analyzer” was introduced by the Russian physiologist I. P. Pavov. Analyzers (sensory systems) are a set of formations that perceive, transmit and analyze information from the environment and internal environment of the body.

Questions after § 34

What brain structures are responsible for memory formation?

Answer. The following brain structures are responsible for memory: the hippocampus and cortex:

Cerebral cortex - responsible for the memory of impressions perceived through the senses and associations between sensations;

Hippocampus – connects facts, dates, names, impressions that have emotional significance into a single whole.

Besides:

Cerebellum - it is involved in the formation of memory during repetition and the development of conditioned reflexes;

The striatum is a collection of structures in the forebrain that is involved in the formation of habits.

How does the "memory web" work?

Answer. There is memory switching that can revive the desired memories. At the same time, the nerve nodes of the cerebral cortex and hippocampus are activated. Such connections constitute a “web of memory.” The more connections, the larger the “web”.

How are sensory, short-term and long-term memory related?

Answer. Basic memory processes: memorization, storage and reproduction. Based on the duration of these processes, three types of memory are distinguished. Sensory or instantaneous memory contains information received from receptors. It retains traces of exposure for a very short time - from 0.1 seconds to several seconds. If the received signals do not attract the attention of the higher parts of the brain, memory traces are erased and the receptors perceive new signals. If information from the receptors is important, it is transferred to short-term memory. It stores information that a person thinks about this moment. If information is not re-entered, it will be lost. Only memories that are reinforced by repetition or associated with other memories enter long-term memory, where they can be stored for hours, months, or years.

How does memory develop?

Answer. Involuntary memory is formed without conscious control. Thanks to such memory, most of a person's life experience is acquired. Voluntary memory includes consciousness and requires volitional efforts, since a person sets himself the goal of remembering the necessary information. Motor or motor memory is the memorization and reproduction of various movements, the basis of motor skills. Verbal-logical memory allows you to remember and reproduce thoughts expressed in words and other signs. Thanks to this type of memory, a person operates with concepts, understands the meaning of the acquired information.. Figurative memory allows him to preserve and reproduce visual, auditory, and olfactory images. Emotional memory is the memory of feelings. It is known that things associated with positive or negative emotions are remembered better. All types of memory are closely interconnected.

To study short-term visual memory, a table is needed. You can make it yourself. A sheet of paper is divided into 12 cells (3 rows, 4 cells each). A two-digit number is recorded in each compartment.
The person is asked to look at the table for 10 seconds and then write down the numbers that he remembers. The average result is 6-7 numbers. Insufficient volume – less than 5.

Methodology “Study of involuntary and voluntary memory”

For the study you need 2 sets of pictures, 10 pieces each.

Study of involuntary memory And. The person is asked to look at the pictures. each is shown for 2 seconds. after viewing, they are asked to remember the pictures that he saw.

Study random memory . Before the test, the person is asked to remember the pictures. The memorization method is not specified. They show the second set of pictures for 3 seconds each, then ask them to remember them in any order.

After the study, the effectiveness of the two types of memory is compared.

Memory is the property of the nervous system to remember, retain and reproduce information, skills and abilities at the right time. The essence of memory is the ability to receive, store and reproduce life experience. Thus, memory is the basis of learning, therefore it is classified as a cognitive process.

When they talk about poor memory, they mean that difficulties arise at one or more stages: it is difficult for a person to remember data, information is not stored in memory for a long enough time or is replaced by new facts.
Most often, memory impairment is associated with decreased attention, overwork and haste. This can be easily corrected with training. A more serious problem is sudden memory loss associated with illness or injury. In this case, the help of a neurologist is required.

Types of memory by sense organs

1. verbal-logical– remembering the meaning of speech;
2. emotional– memory for experienced emotions and events associated with them;
3. motor– memorization and reproduction of complex ones;
4. figurative– memory for images that were formed on the basis of data received from various senses;

• visual – preservation of visual images, illustrations, table diagrams;
• auditory – helps to preserve and accurately reproduce sounds and speech;
• olfactory – remembering smells;
• tactile - memory for information obtained through touch.

By storage time

instant(iconic) – up to 0.5 seconds. stores in memory what has just been perceived by the senses;
short-term– up to 20 seconds. the volume is very limited (7 items), information is quickly replaced by new data. At this stage, useless information is eliminated, which allows you to avoid overloading long-term memory. Short-term memory is considered a filter and transfer point for long-term memory, therefore, the larger the volume short term memory, the better the long-term memory.
operational– storage for a certain period of time, up to several days (keep in memory until I write it down, until I pass the exam)
long-term– stores information for an unlimited period. It is believed that the volume of this memory is unlimited; difficulties arise not with storage, but with recalling the necessary information.
genetic– is preserved at the gene level and is inherited.
on the participation of the will in the process of memorization:
involuntary– information is remembered automatically, without human effort. often it's interesting material having great importance for a person, causing positive emotions or necessary in work. It often happens that involuntary memory works better than voluntary memory - memorization is faster and information is retained longer.
free- Memorization necessarily requires volitional efforts. In order to learn a poem, new material or foreign words, you need to force yourself, which causes additional difficulties.

What does memory depend on? (anatomy and physiology of the central nervous system)

Various brain structures are responsible for memory:

• for working and short-term memory- mediobasal system (hippocampus and adjacent temporal lobe cortex);
• for procedural memory– amygdala, cerebellum and cortex;
• for long-term memory- cortex.

also in memory functioning important role cholinergic, noradrenergic, serotonergic, dopaminergic systems of the brain play. They are a collection of interconnected nerve cells that secrete one of the neurotransmitters (hormones) - acetylcholine, norepinephrine, serotonin or dopamine.

There are many types of memory that work harmoniously, making up a single system.

Let us figuratively explain how memory works. Imagine a car sprinkling sand on the street - this is information that needs to be remembered. She travels, leaving a trace, from object to object (these are neurons - brain cells). This trace remains for some time - the information is stored in memory. But if the car does not take the same route again, then soon there will be no trace left on the road. It’s the same with memory, if information is not repeated or used, then it is gradually replaced by other stimuli.

Information (impressions, skills) passes from the first nerve cell to the other, forming a nerve cell. New information travels a different route, leaving a new trail.

Memory includes 4 processes:

• imprint;
• preservation;
• reproduction;
• forgetting.

they are provided by 4 memory mechanisms:

• formation of nerve connections;
• strengthening nerve connections;
• stimulation of nerve connections;
• inhibition of nerve connections.

Each memory process has its own mechanism. For example: information is imprinted through the formation of neural connections between a group of neurons. The imprinting process goes through two stages. The first is that nerve cells retain excitation, which provides short-term memory.

Second phase memorization– consolidation of excitation due to biochemical changes in brain cells and synapses (intercellular formations that ensure the transmission of nerve impulses between neurons). Biochemical changes are not formed instantly, so it takes some time to remember information. Optimal memorization occurs if information is repeated several times. Then the nervous excitement goes through the same path again and again. This provides significant biochemical changes, as a result of which such information is well remembered, stored in memory for a long time and is easier to reproduce. Another important factor is how interconnected the new material is with existing knowledge. Simply put, it is easier to remember what the brain has already had to deal with.

saving information in memory is possible due to the strengthening of neural connections. According to recent research, information related to working memory is encoded in the form of changes in RNA (ribonucleic acid) molecules. Each nerve cell has more than 1000 altered RNAs. Long-term memory is ensured by changes in DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) molecules located in the corresponding nerve cells that took part in memorization.

reproduction of information when it is necessary to remember what is needed, it is carried out by excitation of those neurons that memorized the information. At the same time, connections are established in the brain with other semantic components. In other words, the more related material there is in the brain regarding a given piece of information, the easier it will be to recall.

Forgetting information corresponds to inhibition of neural connections. this happens when traces are replaced by new impressions. Old data is replaced with more current information. Forgetting is considered a protective mechanism that protects the brain from overload.

All information contained in memory is stored in various areas of the cerebral cortex. For example, verbal-logical information is predominantly localized in the frontal lobes. One neuron or a whole network of nerve cells can take part in remembering one event. Good memory is possible with coordinated work of the cortex of both hemispheres.

Actions that have become automatic (washing your face, brushing your teeth, closing the door) are not stored in the cerebral cortex.

Good memory is possible with high tone of the cerebral cortex. It, in turn, depends on the work of subcortical structures and general condition body. and the reticular formation and limbic part of the brain increase the tone of the cortex and orient a person’s attention, creating the prerequisites for memorization.

How can you tell if your memory is bad?

tests are used to determine memory capacity

short term memory

To study short-term visual memory, a table is needed. You can make it yourself. a sheet of paper is divided into 12 cells (3 rows, 4 cells each). A two-digit number is written into each compartment.
the person is asked to look at the table for 10 seconds and then write down the numbers that he remembers. The average result is 6-7 numbers. insufficient volume – less than 5.

1. memory problems
difficulties with memorization;
difficulties with mastering new information;
2. problems with storing information

3. problems with reproducing (remembering) information

The word "rolls on the tongue"
memory losses

The main causes of memory impairment (the cause is the mechanism of development of the pathology)

Chronic fatigue. Long-term exhausting mental stress leads to disruption of the higher nervous system, including memory impairment. Memory is especially impaired by the abundance of information, the need to make decisions quickly, a high degree of responsibility for them, and multitasking.

Stress. Frequently repeated and prolonged stressful situations have an extremely negative impact on the state of memory and higher nervous activity in general. Information retention is particularly affected

Lack of sleep. Scientists have proven that constant lack of sleep reduces the efficiency of thought processes and memory by 30%. Memorization and reproduction of information suffer the most.

Abuse of energy and stimulant drinks - constant stimulation causes the brain to eventually become exhausted.

Smoking and alcohol abuse. Nicotine causes a sharp constriction of blood vessels in the brain and this effect can persist for several hours. alcohol consumption (more than 40 g per day) causes intoxication of the nervous system. Interestingly, complete abstinence from alcohol (less than 20g per day) also negatively affects memory.

Intoxication of the body with harmful substances. most negative impact Aluminum, lead, copper, manganese, and mercury influence memory. these substances can accumulate in the body. this often happens to people working in hazardous industries.

Malnutrition. deficiency of protein, essential fatty acids and chemical elements worsens the course of processes in the brain and impairs its functioning.

Deficiency of vitamins E and group B. These substances are involved in oxygen exchange and the synthesis of neurotransmitters, which ensure the passage of impulses between nerve cells.

Age-related changes associated with a decrease in brain activity and deterioration of blood circulation in the brain. If preventive measures are not taken, then even in healthy people, age-related memory deterioration occurs after 55 years.

Pregnancy and breastfeeding. The hormone oxytocin has been found to negatively affect memory. Testosterone and estrogen help remember new information.

Taking certain medications– antidepressants, neuroleptics, painkillers, anticholinergics, barbiturates, antihistamines. In addition, when receiving various groups With medications, their effects can accumulate.

Brain hypoxia. oxygen starvation of nerve cells is associated with carbon monoxide poisoning, circulatory disorders, suffocation,

Diseases internal organs:

• pulmonary tuberculosis
• pathologies of the nervous system
• violations cerebral circulation, stroke
• traumatic brain injuries
• neurosyphilis
• infectious diseases meningitis, encephalitis
• benign and malignant brain tumors

How to improve memory?

IN last years The theory that the brain, like a muscle, can be trained is gaining popularity. The more often you train your memory, the better it will be. Moreover, this rule works at any age. This method of improving memory works, whether it is a child’s poor memory or age-related changes.

Repetition. repetition for 20 seconds after receiving information allows you to retain it longer in short-term memory and
memory training

1. Write down the numbers from 1 to 20 in a column. associate each number with an object, person or phenomenon. For example: 1-apple, 5-store. The next day, try to remember which item corresponded to which number. Repeat daily, changing items. Record the number of correct answers.
2. Write down 20 two-digit numbers and assign serial numbers to them. It's better if someone else does it. For example: 1.89; 2. 66... ​​look at the table 40 seconds. reproduce everything you remember.
3. read a passage of text consisting of 10 sentences. The text should not be artistic, but scientifically journalistic. after 1 minute you need to reproduce everything that you managed to remember.
4. remembering faces and surnames. 10 photos are required for the exercise strangers. you need to remember 10 persons, as well as first, patronymic and last names. 30 seconds are allocated for memorization. Then the photos are submitted in a different order; you need to remember the people's full names.
5.

• Medicines to improve memory

Over-the-counter medications
Group of drugs	representatives	Action	Mode of application
Ginkgo biloba preparations	Bilobil, memoplant, gingogink, bilobil forte, ginkgo biloba	They improve blood flow and affect the vascular system of the brain. drugs improve the nutrition of nerve cells and their oxygen.	Adults – 1 capsule 3 times a day. course of treatment is 3 months. The drugs are contraindicated for children under 18 years of age.
Amino acids	Glycine, glycised, glycyram	Improves metabolic processes in neurons. Improves memorization during periods of intellectual stress (Exam session).	Tablets for lozenges under the tongue. adults: 2 tablets 3 times a day. children: 1 tablet 3 times a day. Duration of treatment is from 2 weeks to 2 months.
Nootropic medicines. gamma-aminobutyric acid preparations	Aminalon, noofen	The drugs improve cerebral circulation and nerve cell metabolism , increase glucose absorption. Improves memory, weak antidepressant and psychostimulating effect.

Medicines used as prescribed by a doctor
Group of drugs	representatives	Action	Mode of application
Nootropics	Piracetam, Lucetam, Memotropil, Nootropil, Cerebril	Enhances dopamine synthesis. improves the transmission of nerve impulses between nerve cells. Improves blood circulation and metabolic processes in the brain. Increases glucose uptake by neurons.	Orally 150-250 mg 3 times a day. In hospitals, drugs are administered intravenously. Duration of treatment from 2 weeks to 3 months.
Nootropic and gamkergic drugs	Encephabol, pyritinol	Improves the uptake and absorption of glucose by nerve cells. Increases the exchange of nucleic acids and the release of neurotransmitters at synapses.	Tablets or suspension are taken 3 times a day after meals. The average single dose for adults is 2 tablets or 10 ml of suspension. last dose no later than 3 hours before bedtime to avoid insomnia.
Psychostimulants and nootropics	Phenopropyl,	Activate brain activity, improving attention and memory. Regulate the processes of excitation and inhibition. Improves metabolic processes and blood circulation.	Take 100-200 mg 2 times a day after meals. The doctor determines the duration of the appointment individually (on average 30 days).

These drugs are prescribed only after consultation with a doctor! they have contraindications and side effects.

Memory Improvement Products

• B vitamins – meat and soup products (liver, heart)
• Vitamin E – Seeds, nuts, avocados, vegetable oil
• polyphenols – red and black berries (currants, cherries, blackberries, grapes), green tea
• Choline – egg yolk
• Iodine – seaweed, feijoa, persimmon, sea fish
• glucose – Honey, chocolate, sugar

Memory training

• associations. read or ask someone to tell you 10 pairs of words with associative connections. home - comfort; blonde – hair dye. after 20-30 minutes, read the first words in
• memorizing poetry. learn poems from memory. By memorizing 2 quatrains a day, your memory will noticeably improve within 1-2 months.
• remembering the sequence of playing cards. Pull 6 cards from the deck and try to remember the sequence in which they lie.
• image creation

Treatment of causes of poor memory

If signs of memory deterioration appear, you should contact a neurologist and therapist to establish the causes of the disorders. Next, based on the examination results, treatment is prescribed. Note that in people with weakened memory (except for memory loss), neurological disorders are rare.

• active lifestyle. sufficient physical activity– a condition for normal blood circulation in muscles and brain. Outdoor recreation, hiking, and sports help restore full brain function.
• new impressions. bright, emotionally charged events activate a large number of neurons of the cerebral cortex. which then take part in memorization.
• do not allow automaticity. perform actions consciously. To do this, perform actions (closing the door, turning off electrical appliances) with your left hand if you are right-handed. This technique will force additional parts of the brain to tense up and the action will be remembered.
• problems, crosswords, puzzles, mental arithmetic.
• focus attention on the object of action. Concentration allows you to use a whole network of neurons to remember. this will facilitate the memorization process, improve the safety of information and its recall at the right time.
• involve associations. The brain remembers better information that is related to existing data. Therefore, it is easier to remember a person who is similar to someone you know.
• maintain a positive attitude. What causes laughter and joy is remembered well. And when a person experiences depression, memory fails. therefore, it is necessary to consciously maintain a positive attitude - communicate with positive people, watch humorous programs.
• study foreign language. activates the brain.
• develop fine motor skills. It is recommended to master a new type of needlework, distinguish between coins of different denominations, and sculpt from kaolin clay and plasticine.
• matches throw 7-10 matches. watch for 1-5 seconds, then sketch how the matches fell.
• master the 10-finger typing method. this helps to engage new associative connections and additional parts of the cortex.

Why does a child have a bad memory? (main reasons)

• Fetal asphyxia during pregnancy associated with toxicosis, early aging placenta.
• neurosis. may develop against the background of overwork at school, frequent quarrels in the family.
• lack of composure
• selective memory. only what's interesting
• regular exercise
• game training on the Internet Vikium
• herdetics

How to improve a child's memory?

Better remembered

• meaningful material – the child understands that it is important and why;
• material that evokes emotions;
• regularly used, included in ongoing activities;
• material related to what the child knows well;
• imaginative thinking - imagine.
• facts that received close attention
• material that was reproduced, repeated in the mind
• meaningful, structured material
• grouped material
• memorizing pictures for preschoolers up to 10. each image is sequentially linked into.
• poem. pictograms. retold. repeat after 2 hours. repeat 3 times before bed, repeat in the morning.
• auditory memory. say 15 phrases - history. specific and absurd.
• numbers are images. Dictate 3-digit numbers – short stories.
• dates of birth, dates of events Pushkin

what to do

• determine which type of memory is dominant (visual, auditory, motor, tactile). It is necessary to use this type of memory when memorizing new material. Children with auditory memory will be better able to remember what is read out loud. a child with motor memory will remember what he wrote down. those who have visual memory, it is easier to remember what they see. In this case, it is advisable to use a text highlighter, diagrams, and tables. preschool and junior children school age remember illustrated material well. determine what type it is.
• To determine the leading type of memory, offer the child several passages of text of the same size. The first must be read “to yourself”, the second out loud, the third rewritten, the fourth you read to the child. then the child must retell the passages. the one that is remembered better, the child’s type of perception is more developed.
• train your memory. learn by heart proverbs, riddles, quatrains, gradually moving on to longer poems. The result of training is the activation of a large number of neurons for memorization.
• expand your horizons. Read to your child from early childhood. Educational cartoons, games, and television programs also help. The more information a child accumulates during the first years of life, the easier it will be to remember. school years.
• rest from mental stress. Although children perceive information much easier than adults, they also suffer from overwork. Especially if it is accompanied by stress. This condition significantly reduces memory and affects other cognitive processes. It must be taken into account that memory deteriorates in lessons 4-6, on Thursday and Friday. This is especially noticeable in last weeks quarters. During such periods, it is important to provide the child with adequate rest. the best option will active games on fresh air.
• improve the coherence of the hemispheres of the brain. finger gymnastics. Finger-fist exercise
• more material on this topic. The more a child knows about animals, the easier it will be for him to remember new facts about them.
• "fist-finger" game
• tactile memory. feeling toys with closed eyes.
• place the toys on the table, watch for 10 seconds, then pick up one item. preschoolers 5-7.
• verbal counting
• develop motor memory.
• association method
• connecting emotions –
• creation of images. Helps you remember phrases and numbers.

Easy Memorization Techniques

1. memorizing foreign words in the form of absurd images
2. remember a list or phone number - arrange items in order on a well-known route remember,
3. It’s easier to remember a person’s last name if you associate it with external features. Repeating to yourself several times also helps memorize. Then address your new acquaintance by name under any pretext: “Ivan Petrovich, if I understand you correctly.” associate with a familiar person with the same name.
4. text. records, pictograms – the main thing in the sentence
5. Memory is like a muscle - it needs training. as long as you train it, it improves. If there is no need to use memory, then it is weakened.

Neuroscientists from Canada and the USA have discovered that not all nerve cells that receive the information necessary for this are involved in memorizing simple skills, but only about a quarter of them. Which neurons will take part in the formation of long-term memory depends on the concentration of the regulatory protein CREB in the cell nucleus. If you artificially increase the concentration of CREB in some neurons, they will be the ones who remember. If CREB is blocked in some neurons, other nerve cells will take on the role of memory cells.

One of the most brilliant achievements of neurobiology of the 20th century was the deciphering of the molecular mechanisms of memory. Nobel laureate Eric Kandel and his colleagues were able to show that to form a real memory - both short-term and long-term - just three neurons, connected in a certain way, are enough.

Memory was studied using the example of the formation of a conditioned reflex in a giant mollusk - the sea hare Aplysia. The mollusk was carefully touched by the siphon, and immediately after this the tail was hit hard. After such a procedure, the mollusk reacts for some time to a light touch on the siphon with a violent defensive reaction, but soon forgets everything (short-term memory). If the “training” is repeated several times, a persistent conditioned reflex (long-term memory) is formed.

It turned out that the process of learning and memorization has nothing to do with any higher, ideal or spiritual matters, but is completely explained by fairly simple and completely automatic events at the level of individual neurons. The entire process can be completely reproduced on the simplest system from three isolated nerve cells. One neuron (sensory) receives a signal from the siphon (in in this case- feels a light touch). The sensory neuron transmits an impulse to the motor neuron, which, in turn, causes the muscles involved in the defense response to contract (Aplysia retracts its gill and throws a portion of red ink into the water). Information about the blow to the tail comes from the third neuron, which in this case plays the role of a modulator. A nerve impulse from one neuron to another is transmitted through the release of signal substances (neurotransmitters). The points of interneuron contact at which the neurotransmitter is released are called synapses.

Eric Kandel was awarded the Nobel Prize for this picture. It shows how short-term and long-term memory is formed in the simplest system of three neurons.

The figure shows two synapses. The first serves to transmit impulses from a sensory neuron to a motor one. The second synapse transmits the impulse from the modulating neuron to the sensory terminal. If at the moment of touching the siphon the modulating neuron is “silent” (the tail is not hit), little neurotransmitter is released at synapse 1, and the motor neuron is not excited.

However, a blow to the tail causes the release of a neurotransmitter at synapse 2, which causes important changes in the behavior of synapse 1. At the end of the sensory neuron, the signaling substance cAMP (cyclic adenosine monophosphate) is produced. This substance activates a regulatory protein - protein kinase A. Protein kinase A, in turn, activates other proteins, which ultimately leads to the fact that synapse 1, when the sensory neuron is excited (that is, in response to touching the siphon), begins to release more neurotransmitter, and the motor neuron is excited. That's what it is short term memory: As long as there is a lot of active protein kinase A at the end of the sensory neuron, signal transmission from the siphon to the muscles of the gill and ink sac is more efficient.

If touching the siphon is accompanied by hitting the tail many times in a row, protein kinase A becomes so abundant that it penetrates the nucleus of the sensory neuron. This leads to the activation of another regulatory protein - the transcription factor CREB. The CREB protein “turns on” a number of genes, the operation of which ultimately leads to the growth of synapse 1 (as shown in the figure) or to the fact that additional processes grow at the end of the sensory neuron, which form new synaptic contacts with the motor neuron. In both cases, the effect is the same: now even weak excitation of the sensory neuron is enough to excite the motor neuron. That's what it is long term memory. It remains to add that, as further research has shown, in higher animals and in you and me, memory is based on the same principles as in Aplysia.

After this necessary introduction, we can move on to the story of what Canadian and American neuroscientists actually discovered. They studied the formation of conditioned reflexes associated with fear in laboratory mice. The simplest reflexes of this kind are formed in the lateral amygdala (LA) - a very small part of the brain responsible for the body's reactions to all sorts of frightening stimuli. The mice were trained to receive an electric shock when a certain sound was heard. In response to the electric shock, the mouse freezes: this is a standard reaction to fear. Mice are smart animals, they can be taught a lot, and their conditioned reflexes form quickly. Trained mice freeze as soon as they hear a sound that portends danger.

Scientists found that the signal from neurons that perceive sound arrives in about 70% of neurons in the lateral amygdala. However, changes associated with the formation of long-term memory (growth of new nerve endings etc.), in trained mice occur only in a quarter of these neurons (approximately 18% of LA neurons).

Scientists have suggested that between LA neurons that are potentially capable of taking part in the formation of long-term memory, there is a kind of competition for the right to grow new synapses, and the probability of “success” of a particular neuron depends on the concentration of the CREB protein in its nucleus. To test this assumption, mice were microinjected with artificial viruses that are not capable of reproduction, but are capable of producing the full-fledged CREB protein or its non-functional analogue CREB S133A. The genes for both of these proteins, inserted into the genome of the virus, were “sewn” to the gene for the green fluorescent protein of the jellyfish. As a result, the nuclei of those LA neurons into which the virus entered began to glow green.

It turned out that as a result of microinjection, the virus penetrates approximately the same number of LA neurons as is involved in the formation of the conditioned reflex. This coincidence turned out to be very convenient.

In addition to normal mice, mutant mice in which the CREB gene does not work were used in the experiments. Such mice are completely deprived of the ability to learn; they cannot remember anything. It turned out that the introduction of a virus producing CREB into the LA of such mice completely restores the ability to form a conditioned reflex. But maybe increasing the concentration of CREB in some LA neurons simply enhances the freezing response?

To test this, experiments were carried out with more complex learning, in which the mouse had to “realize” the connection between sound and electric shock not directly, but indirectly, and this required remembering the specific context in which the learning took place. For this, the work of the LA alone is not enough, but also requires the participation of the hippocampus. In this situation, the mutant mice were unable to learn anything, because no viruses were injected into their hippocampus. Therefore, CREB concentration influences memory rather than freezing.

Using a series of additional experiments, it was possible to prove that it was precisely those LA neurons that were infected with the virus that were involved in memory in mutant mice. Injecting the virus into the LA of healthy mice did not affect their learning ability. However, as in the case of mutant mice, it was precisely those LA neurons that were affected by the virus that were involved in memorization.

Another virus, which produces CREB S133A, deprives infected neurons of the ability to remember, that is, to grow new endings. Scientists have suggested that the introduction of this virus into the LA of healthy mice should not, however, reduce their learning ability, since the virus infects only about 20% of the LA neurons, and other, uninfected neurons will take on the role of “memory” ones. And so it turned out. The mice learned normally, but among the neurons that took part in memorization, practically no neurons were infected (that is, glowing green).

Scientists conducted a whole series of complex experiments, which made it possible to exclude all other explanations except one - the one that corresponded to their initial assumption.

Thus, not all neurons that receive the information necessary for this are involved in memorization (in this case, “sensory” information about sound and “modulating” information about electric shock). Only a certain part of these neurons take on the honorable role of memory, namely those whose nuclei have more CREB protein. This is, in general, logical, since the high concentration of CREB in the nucleus makes such neurons the most “predisposed” to quickly growing new endings.

The mechanism by which other neurons learn that the job has already been done, the winners have been named, and they no longer need to grow anything remains unclear.

This mechanism can be quite simple. A completely similar regulatory system is known in filamentous cyanobacteria, the filaments of which consist of two types of cells: ordinary ones involved in photosynthesis, and specialized “heterocysts” involved in fixing atmospheric nitrogen. The system works very simply: when a community lacks nitrogen, photosynthetic cells begin to turn into heterocysts. The process is reversible up to a certain point. Cells that have gone far enough along this path begin to secrete a signal substance that prevents neighboring cells from turning into heterocysts. The result is a thread with a certain well-defined ratio of ordinary cells and heterocysts (for example, 1:20), and the heterocysts are located at approximately equal distances from each other.

In my opinion, calling such regulatory mechanisms “competition,” as the authors of the article do, is not entirely correct; the emphasis here should be different. The neuron does not receive any personal benefit from the fact that it is the one who takes part in the memorization. In my opinion, it is more appropriate to talk here not about competition, but about real cooperation.

Based on materials: Jin-Hee Han, Steven A. Kushner, Adelaide P. Yiu, Christy J. Cole, Anna Matynia, Robert A. Brown, Rachael L. Neve, John F. Guzowski, Alcino J. Silva, Sheena A. Josselyn. Neuronal Competition and Selection During Memory Formation 2007. V. 316. P. 457–460.

Mystery human memory is one of the main scientific problems of the 21st century, and it will have to be resolved through the joint efforts of chemists, physicists, biologists, physiologists, mathematicians and representatives of other scientific disciplines. And although we are still far from fully understanding what happens to us when we “remember,” “forget,” and “remember again,” important discoveries in recent years point the right way.

One of the main problems of neurophysiology is the inability to conduct experiments on humans. However, even in primitive animals the basic mechanisms of memory are similar to ours.

Pavel Balaban

Today, even the answer to the basic question—what memory is like in time and space—can consist largely of hypotheses and assumptions. If we talk about space, it is still not very clear how memory is organized and where exactly it is located in the brain. Scientific data suggest that its elements are present everywhere, in each of the areas of our “gray matter”. Moreover, seemingly the same information can be recorded in memory in different places.

For example, it has been found that spatial memory (when we remember a certain environment we saw for the first time - a room, a street, a landscape) is associated with an area of ​​the brain called the hippocampus. When we try to retrieve this setting from our memory, say, ten years later, this memory will already be retrieved from a completely different area. Yes, memory can travel inside the brain, and this thesis is best illustrated by an experiment once conducted with chickens. In the life of newly hatched chicks, imprinting plays a big role - instant learning (and placing it in memory is learning). For example, a chick sees a large moving object and immediately “imprints” it in the brain: this is a mother chicken, you need to follow her. But if after five days you remove the part of the chicken’s brain responsible for imprinting, it turns out that... the memorized skill has not gone away. It has moved to another area, and this proves that there is one store for the immediate results of learning, and another for its long-term storage.

We remember with pleasure

But what is even more surprising is that there is no such clear sequence of moving memory from operative to permanent memory, as happens in a computer, in the brain. Working memory, which records immediate sensations, simultaneously triggers other memory mechanisms - medium-term and long-term. But the brain is an energy-intensive system and therefore tries to optimize the use of its resources, including memory. Therefore, nature has created a multi-stage system. Working memory is quickly formed and destroyed just as quickly - there is a special mechanism for this. But for real important events are recorded for long-term storage, and their importance is emphasized by emotion and attitude to information. At the physiological level, emotion is the activation of the most powerful biochemical modulating systems. These systems release hormone-transmitters that change the biochemistry of memory in the right direction. Among them, for example, are various pleasure hormones, the names of which are reminiscent not so much of neurophysiology as of criminal chronicles: these are morphines, opioids, cannabinoids - that is, narcotic substances produced by our body. In particular, endocannabinoids are generated directly at synapses - the contacts of nerve cells. They influence the effectiveness of these contacts and thus “encourage” the recording of this or that information in memory. Other hormone-transmitter substances can, on the contrary, suppress the process of moving data from working memory to long-term memory.

The mechanisms of emotional, that is, biochemical reinforcement of memory are now being actively studied. The only problem is that laboratory research this kind of research can only be done on animals, but how much can a laboratory rat tell us about its emotions?

If we have stored something in memory, then sometimes the time comes to recall this information, that is, to retrieve it from memory. But is the right word “extract”? Apparently, not very much. It seems that memory mechanisms do not retrieve information, but regenerate it. There is no information in these mechanisms, just as there is no voice or music in the hardware of a radio receiver. But everything is clear with the receiver - it processes and converts the electromagnetic signal received by the antenna. What kind of “signal” is processed when retrieving memory, where and how this data is stored is still very difficult to say. However, it is already known that when remembering, memory is rewritten, modified, or at least this happens with some types of memory.

Not electricity, but chemistry

In the search for an answer to the question of how memory can be modified or even erased, important discoveries have been made in recent years, and a number of works have appeared on the “memory molecule.”

In fact, they have been trying to isolate such a molecule, or at least some kind of material carrier of thought and memory, for two hundred years, but without much success. In the end, neuroscientists came to the conclusion that there is nothing specific to memory in the brain: there are 100 billion neurons, there are 10 quadrillion connections between them, and somewhere out there, in this cosmic-scale network, memory, thoughts, and behavior are uniformly encoded. Attempts have been made to block individual chemicals in the brain, and this leads to changes in memory, but also to changes in the entire functioning of the body. It was only in 2006 that the first works appeared on a biochemical system that seems to be very specific to memory. Its blockade did not cause any changes in behavior or learning ability - only the loss of some memory. For example, memory about the situation if the blocker was introduced into the hippocampus. Or about emotional shock if the blocker was injected into the amygdala. The biochemical system discovered is a protein, an enzyme called protein kinase M-zeta, which controls other proteins.

One of the main problems of neurophysiology is the inability to conduct experiments on humans. However, even in primitive animals the basic mechanisms of memory are similar to ours.

The molecule works at the site of synaptic contact - contact between neurons in the brain. Here we need to make one important digression and explain the specifics of these very contacts. The brain is often likened to a computer, and therefore many people think that the connections between neurons, which create all that we call thinking and memory, are purely electrical in nature. But that's not true. The language of synapses is chemistry, here some released molecules, like a key and a lock, interact with other molecules (receptors), and only then do electrical processes begin. The efficiency and high throughput of the synapse depends on how many specific receptors are delivered along the nerve cell to the point of contact.

Protein with special properties

Protein kinase M-zeta controls the delivery of receptors across the synapse and thus increases its efficiency. When these molecules are activated simultaneously at tens of thousands of synapses, signals are rerouted, and the overall properties of a certain network of neurons change. All this tells us little about how changes in memory are encoded in this rerouting, but one thing is certain: if protein kinase M-zeta is blocked, the memory will be erased, because the chemical bonds that provide it will not work. The newly discovered memory “molecule” has a number of interesting features.

Firstly, it is capable of self-reproduction. If, as a result of learning (that is, receiving new information), a certain additive is formed in the synapse in the form of a certain amount of protein kinase M-zeta, then this amount can remain there for a very long time, despite the fact that this protein molecule decomposes in three to four days. Somehow, the molecule mobilizes the cell's resources and ensures the synthesis and delivery of new molecules to the site of synaptic contact to replace the ones that have dropped out.

Secondly, one of the most interesting features of protein kinase M-zeta is its blocking. When researchers needed to obtain a substance for experiments on blocking the memory “molecule,” they simply “read” the section of its gene that encodes its own peptide blocker and synthesized it. However, this blocker is never produced by the cell itself, and for what purpose evolution left its code in the genome is unclear.

Third important feature The molecule is that both itself and its blocker have an almost identical appearance for all living beings with a nervous system. This indicates that, in the form of protein kinase M-zeta, we are dealing with the most ancient adaptation mechanism, on which human memory is also built.

Of course, protein kinase M-zeta is not a “memory molecule” in the sense that past scientists hoped to find it. It is not a material carrier of remembered information, but obviously acts as a key regulator of the effectiveness of connections within the brain and initiates the emergence of new configurations as a result of learning.

Get in touch

Now experiments with the protein kinase blocker M-zeta have, in a sense, the character of “shooting at squares.” The substance is injected into certain areas of the brain of experimental animals using a very thin needle and thus turns off the memory immediately in large functional blocks. The limits of penetration of the blocker are not always clear, as is its concentration in the area chosen as the target. As a result, not all experiments in this area bring clear results.

A true understanding of the processes occurring in memory can be obtained by working at the level of individual synapses, but this requires targeted delivery of the blocker to the contact between neurons. Today this is impossible, but since science faces such a task, sooner or later the tools to solve it will appear. Particular hopes are placed on optogenetics. It has been established that a cell in which the ability to synthesize a light-sensitive protein has been built in using genetic engineering methods can be controlled using a laser beam. And if such manipulations have not yet been carried out at the level of living organisms, something similar is already being done on the basis of grown cell cultures, and the results are very impressive.

My daughter went to first grade and was faced with the fact that she had to learn the rules by heart. It was very difficult for her at first. Even if she could repeat the entire text in the first hour after memorizing, then some of the information was lost. And I remembered these rules by heart since school.

Then my little genius asked a completely logical and wise question: “Why can’t I remember the rule that I taught today, but you still know it?” I was in no hurry to answer - I decided to study the theory and compare it with life experience.

I started studying the issue from the basics. What is memory? Where is a person's memory stored? What is the memory structure?

By definition, it is a mental process consisting of the following components: remembering, storing, reproducing and forgetting.

How does memory work? It is formed throughout life and stores our life experiences. Physically, the process can be described by the emergence of new connections between a huge number of neurons in the brain.

The processes in the brain are not fully understood, and scientists continue research in this area of ​​the human body.

There is still debate about where human memory is located. To date, it has been proven that the following areas of the brain are responsible for this part of consciousness: subcortical hippocampus, hypothalamus, thalamus, cerebral cortex.

The main storage sites are the hippocampus and cortex. The hippocampus is located in the temporal lobe on either side of the brain. To the question of which hemisphere is responsible for memory, we can safely answer that both, only the right lobe “controls” factual and linguistic data, and the left lobe controls the chronology of life events.

The appearance of neural connections is due to the work of receptors of the senses: vision, taste, smell, touch and hearing. The brain records all electrical impulses from them, and the most vivid moments that evoke strong emotions (for example, first love) are remembered better.

Thus, human emotions influence memory.

Each person may have a predominance of the memory property through any sense organ.

For example, some people are good at learning text from a textbook while reading, others are better off hearing the text from another person, others have an excellent memory for smells, and so on.

Various external and internal factors influence the “quality” of our memory. There are many reasons that cause disturbances in this process.

Internal reasons include improper handling of information in the following areas:

• memorization – so that information is not forgotten, you need to work with it;
• interference – a large amount of new information leads to forgetting important previously acquired information;
• repression – negative memories are forgotten faster;
• distortion – remembering and reproducing information occurs against the background of our feelings and emotions, so such processing makes the data subjective;
• storage and reproduction errors - if the data was remembered with errors or inaccuracies, or incompletely, then their reproduction will be incorrect.

There are also enough external reasons:

1. Genetic disorders (for example, autism).
2. Hormonal disorders (including diabetes, pathology of the thyroid gland).
3. Depressive or stressful conditions and diseases (neurosis, schizophrenia).
4. Exhaustion of the body caused by overwork, insomnia, illness, poor nutrition, alcoholism, smoking, and taking certain medications (for example, benzodiazepines).
5. Age-related changes (Alzheimer's disease).

In addition to diseases and injuries, addiction to alcohol has a particularly detrimental effect on memory. It is known that even one-time consumption of alcohol leads to disorders, and with alcoholism, neural connections in the hippocampus are destroyed, cerebral circulation is impaired, and vitamin deficiency occurs.

All this leads to a loss of the ability to assimilate new information.

Acute conditions such as stroke and heart attack can also cause the destruction of neural connections, and the consequences can be colossal, and recovery requires a lot of time, effort and patience. Sometimes all attempts are unsuccessful.

The hippocampus contains a substance, acetylcholine, which is responsible for transmitting impulses from one neuron to another. Its deficiency causes memory impairment. This phenomenon is especially observed in old age and causes Alzheimer's disease.

Structure

A long-term study of how human memory works led to the creation of a detailed classification. One of the criteria is the duration of information storage. According to it, the following types of memory can be distinguished:

• instantaneous (sensory);
• short-term;
• operational;
• long-term.

Instantaneous is characterized by the fact that information is recorded by sensory organ receptors, but cannot be processed. It, in turn, is divided into iconic (visual perception) and echoic (auditory perception).

An example of an iconic look: you see a banner on the street with an advertisement and a phone number, but in a second you won’t remember this number. The echoic appearance can also be seen in advertising, but you did not see the phone number, but heard it on the radio. Instant memory allows you to store information for up to 5 seconds.

Short-term is the consequence of a single perception and immediate reproduction. If we take the example of a rule for the first grade, when my daughter reads it syllable by syllable once without repetition. She will be able to keep the rule in memory for a period of time from 5 seconds to one minute.

The hippocampus is responsible for short-term memory. Proof of this is the fact that when the hippocampus is damaged (during surgery, for example), a person immediately forgets the event that just happened to him, but remembers the information that accumulated before the damage.

RAM is the same as short-term memory, but information is stored only during the period of its use. For example, my daughter read a rule and used it to complete an exercise from her homework, and then forgot it.

This type allows a person to quickly solve a problem here and now and forget later unnecessary information.

Long-term is stored in the cerebral cortex. It develops simultaneously with the short-term one and is its consequence. After repeated memorization and application of information located within short-term memory, it is fixed in the brain, namely in the cerebral cortex, for a long time or even for life.

This is an example where a rule learned in the first grade and applied throughout 11 years of schooling is remembered forever. Long-term memory requires the participation of all resources of consciousness: mental, sensory and intellectual.

Only conscious and fully comprehended information can take place in a person’s long-term memory.

The structure of memory is simplified by the following diagram: memorization - storage - reproduction. When memorizing, new neural connections are built.

Thanks to these connections, we remember (reproduce) information. Memories can be retrieved from long-term memory independently or under the influence of stimuli on certain areas of the brain (for example, hypnosis).

The duration of information retention is influenced by a person’s attention to it. The more attention is concentrated, the longer the information will be stored.

Forgetting is also an integral part of memory. This process is necessary to relieve the central nervous system of unnecessary memories.

Conclusion

Now I can answer my daughter's question:

1. Memory is a process made up of several separate components. To remember information, you need to comprehend it, repeat it many times and periodically apply it in practice. This is due to certain properties of the brain and, accordingly, the existence of several types of memory.
2. It is important to know where memory is stored in order to understand what determines the memorization of a rule. It is found in the brain with a large number of neurons. To fix information in the cerebral cortex, it is necessary to create strong neural connections.
3. Knowing how memory works will help you develop it and enjoy the process.

This part of consciousness is connected with the senses, so you can observe how the text is better remembered: when reading or listening.

The process of memorization is also connected with the intellect: the more and better we learn, the easier memorization will be later.

Successful memorization is related to a person’s mental state: a depressed mood can interfere with the process; The more positive emotions and interest a person shows in information, the more carefully he studies it, and the better he remembers it.

That is, it is important to have a positive attitude. For children, you can create playing conditions to attract attention.

Need for development

The human memory structure involves a relationship with intelligence. By developing it, we develop intelligence.

A person who spends a lot of time remembering and comprehending becomes more attentive and organized, he develops all types of thinking, imagination and Creative skills. In addition, such brain training prevents age-related diseases associated with memory impairment.

Depending on the goals of memory training, there are three areas of use:

1. Household direction - needed to eliminate forgetfulness at the everyday level (for example, periodically forgetting your phone at home).
2. Natural - when memory training is combined with in a healthy way life, and the results can be used in any field of human activity.
3. Artificial is the use of mnemonics, the mastery of which allows you to remember colossal amounts of various information.

It doesn’t matter which method you choose, but if at least one of them is studied, then this will already be a step towards self-improvement and the opportunity to go further. These invaluable skills will undoubtedly be useful in any area of ​​life, making you successful and happy.