Of primary importance when teaching penmanship is the teacher’s demonstration of the writing process and explanation of how to write letters, syllables, words, and sentences. This is the main technique for teaching calligraphic writing skills. The teacher must write the sample on the board so that all students can see how the teacher writes.

Another technique for teaching penmanship should be for students to copy from a ready-made sample - the teacher’s sample on the board or in a notebook. This is a very old technique based on the fact that students imitate and reproduce a writing sample. A good example of a teacher's writing influences students' writing not only through conscious copying - it is also a model for unconscious imitation, which is very pronounced at primary school age.

Copy method. It should be used in a limited manner due to the fact that tracing is carried out by students without sufficient awareness of the writing process and even seeing the shape of the letter. Sometimes a student may circle a letter or element in the wrong direction. However, when copying, the student practices the correct movement: scope, size, direction, shape - in a word, something that sometimes, visually perceiving, he cannot transfer during writing.

Some teachers have students copy samples through transparent paper - tracing paper. Tracing through tracing paper or using dots psychologically has the same meaning - consolidating the correct movement. In any case, it is important that copying is carried out like writing, with the correct movements, since otherwise copying does not give the desired effect and can lead to the reinforcement of incorrect movements.

Imaginary writing, or tracing over a sample, writing in the air. Here the student not only relies on motor sensations, but also on a visually perceived pattern. Imaginary writing is carried out either according to a model written by the teacher on the board, or following the teacher’s letter on the board. Students can write letters and connect them without any image at all, from memory, write in the air, holding their hand in their hand. Such exercises enliven the learning process. The disadvantage of this technique is that the teacher cannot take into account what the result of tracing, repeating the movement is, how accurately the children reproduce the movements and shape of the sample.

Analysis of letter shapes. It can be done in different ways. You can analyze the shape of a letter, breaking it down into its component, visually distinguishable elements (the letter a consists of an oval and a stick with a rounded bottom). Some letters, quite complex in shape, are written in one indivisible movement; for example, this is how the letters g and e are written. The teacher must remember that element-by-element analysis does not allow consideration of the shape of the letter and the features of its writing. Therefore, the teacher then explains how to write a letter, highlighting the main elements of movement, performs the features of the shape of the letter, the size of the ratio of elements. Thus, the analysis of the shape of letters is carried out differently, depending on whether the letter is being introduced for the first time and how complex it is in the way it is written.

One of the methods of teaching graphic writing skills can be considered the introduction of rules into teaching that students should know well. This promotes conscious mastery of writing skills. Conscious assimilation is especially necessary when the skill is still being improved and has not become automated. Knowledge of the rules when writing should be formed very briefly and there should be few of them. Every student must learn these rules and put them into practice. The rules are made up of the tasks that the teacher sets for the students during the writing process.

In grade 1 (1-4), first the rules regarding seating and the position of the notebook are introduced, then the rules directly related to the writing process: letters in words must be written with the same slant; it is necessary to write letters in words at the same distance from each other; you need to write beautifully.

From 2nd grade, the following rules are introduced: letters in words should be written at the same height (2nd half of the year); the syllable is written continuously; you need to write quickly and beautifully.

The teacher must introduce these rules gradually. So, he can first introduce rules for writing with the same slant. This rule is explained already in the preliterary period. Children understand what a slanted line is, what it means to write with a slant, and repeat after the teacher that they should write with straight but slanted sticks. When moving to writing letters, syllables and words, a rule about slanted writing is formed. Then, when moving on to writing sentences, a rule is introduced regarding the uniform placement of letters. After the methods of continuous letter connections are explained, the rule about continuous writing is formulated. The rule - you need to write beautifully - is, as it were, a conclusion from the previous ones. What does it mean to write beautifully? Write cleanly, without blots, do not go beyond the margins, write straight and slanted, do not circle the letters twice.

You should not introduce rules intrusively at every lesson. Otherwise, this technique, aimed at conscious mastery of skills, turns into its opposite: the words do not reach the students’ consciousness.

An important technique for teaching penmanship is writing to the count or to the beat of the count. Counting writing promotes the development of smooth, rhythmic writing at a certain tempo. This technique enlivens the work and arouses interest in writing. This is an auxiliary technique that should not be used for too long and constantly, so as not to make the work monotonous.

To develop the smoothness and complexity of hand movements, writing of various additional loops and strokes is introduced, designed to develop courage, ease and smoothness of movement in writing.

Thus, we have described the basic techniques used in teaching calligraphic writing skills. In addition to these techniques, some others can be noted, such as children drawing borders, shading small shapes and others.

At different stages of training, the degree of application of one or another technique will be different, which depends on the level of mastery of writing skills.

Along with traditional method For teaching writing and developing calligraphic skills in younger schoolchildren, there are also proprietary technologies for developing writing skills. This is explained by the fact that the method of penmanship, like any other, is not frozen. She is developing. Therefore, many methodologists offer their own methods of teaching writing, considering each of them to be the best. Many methodologists emphasize that the formulation of calligraphic skills today should work to solve the general strategic task of teaching - to improve all aspects of the student’s personality, to develop new abilities.

This position is also recognized by methodologist N.A. Fedosov, agreeing that when teaching calligraphy, efforts should be directed, first of all, to the formation of the necessary psychological and physiological mechanisms that ensure conscious writing, and not just to practicing each individual letter and its connections.

A special album with written letters and their elements can be very useful throughout the work, taking into account the visual-effective nature of the child’s thinking, but at the same time contributing to the improvement of visual-figurative and the formation of analytical thinking. The manual is intended for the development of visual and motor analyzers involved in the perception and subsequent reproduction of letter shapes, as well as for teaching calligraphy based on a certain generalization.

A special envelope is glued to the inner cover of the album, containing letter elements cut out of thick paper. Each page of the album has written letters (uppercase and lowercase) pasted on it. The letters are cut out of velvet paper. The pasted letter seems to rise above the page, thereby creating better conditions for the eye and hand during the initial acquaintance with the shape of the letter. Arrows are drawn next to each letter, showing the trajectory of the hand's movement when writing, and the beginning of the movement is specially indicated.

Children, together with the teacher, have analyzed the configuration of the letter and become familiar with the shape of its specific element, and find it in the album envelope. Then, looking at each page in turn, they detect a given element in different letters, testing themselves by superimposing the selected detail on the letter being examined. If there is a match, the element is written in the album under the corresponding element of the letter. In addition, children model the desired letter from already familiar elements and, by placing it on a sample in the album, test themselves - this is how they learn synthesis.

When performing exercises, the motor apparatus of the writing hand is actively strengthened, but special exercises are also necessary for this. The most important of them is shading, since this action does not make it difficult for the student. ON THE. Fedosova offers 4 types of shading, which contribute to the development and strengthening of the small muscles of the hand and the development of coordination of movements: 1) coloring with short, frequent strokes; 2) shading with age; 3) centric hatching (shading from the center); 4) shading with long parallel segments.

ON THE. Fedosova also suggests using additional lined notebooks. It is important to remember that the guidelines should gradually become simpler.

The proposed work should be carried out, with the above exercises, in the preparatory period before learning to write in copybooks.

While considering alternative technologies for teaching writing, we came across the methodology of N.G. Agarkova, in which there are similarities with the traditional method, but there are also differences.

So, Agarkova N.G. notes that the technology of teaching initial writing and developing graphic skills is determined by a system of principles, methods and techniques used in writing lessons, that is, Russian graphics, and classes on developing the automation of the action of reproducing letters and their connections on paper. These are, first of all, the principles: 1) element-by-element study; 2) single-variant (stable) outline of letters and their complexes, as well as 3) the principle of logical grouping of letter characters, highlighted by methodologist N.G. Agarkova.

The essence of the element-by-element principle is that learning to draw a letter must be preceded by the formation in the child’s memory of a clearly visual image of this letter, that is, he must clearly understand what visual elements the letter consists of and in what spatial-quantitative relationships these elements are found in it.

The principle of single-variant (stable) outline of written letters is determined by the patterns of hand movement when writing. These are primarily circular closed movements of the hand directed inward towards the shoulder. The hand performs uniform movements during writing. This principle is implemented in the identity of the shape of the letter sign and the sequence of the image. Thus, all letters containing an oval (a, b, d, o, O, F, f, yu, Yu), a straight line with a fourth oval (ъ, ъ, ы) and lines with a loop, turning into lowercase oval (c), have only one variant of the outline, which uses the technique of lower repetition.

Methodists Bezrukikh M.M. and Khokhlova T.E. They also believe that, given the peculiarities of the formation of movements when writing, it would be advisable to start not with whole letters, but with an explanation that each letter consists of elements, and we can actually “construct” or assemble any letter from these elements.

“Such element-by-element analysis, which is worth spending extra time on, allows the child to creatively and consciously approach the design of letters even before he learns to write them,” believe M.M. Bezrukikh. and Khokhlova T.E. To construct letters, you can use special lottos with letter elements or a lotto, in each cell of which there is a part of a letter, “divided” not only vertically into elements, but also horizontally. Lotto will help you quickly find common elements in different letters and make letters from straight elements. Further computerization of the school will make it possible to use computers for such games.

Thus, not only N.G. Agarkova proposes the principle of a single-variant (stable) outline of written letters. Bezrukikh M.M., Khokhlova T.E. agree with her. The only difference is that each methodologist identifies his own groups of letters.

The logical principles of grouping written letters allows, in a fairly short period of the post-letter period, to purposefully and systematically continue the formation in the students’ memory of clearly differentiated visual-motor images of written letters, and therefore to prevent graphic errors in their writing and thereby lay a solid foundation for the development of automated graphic skills.

Thus, the principles described above are implemented through an element-by-element holistic method of writing, which, firstly, is determined by the age-related psychological characteristics of children 6-7 years old, and secondly, it does not contradict the formation of coherent (continuous) writing, but, on the contrary, covers its foundations . This is achieved through the introduction of elements of two categories into the methodology: 1) visual and 2) motor. The configuration of elements of the first category is determined by the patterns of visual perception of complex graphic forms, the second - by the patterns of hand movement during writing, provided that the graphic skill is automated.

“Successful mastery of a graphic skill largely depends on the student’s knowledge and execution in the process of writing of three types of connections with a subsequent letter: upper, lower and middle smooth,” writes N.G. Agarkova.

The upper type of connection includes letters, the reproduction of which begins on the top line of the working line (ruled notebook for 1st grade) or in the middle of the line, if the student writes in a lined notebook: i, k, n, p, p , t, y, c, sh, sch, s, ъ, yu, s. The exception is the letter c, since it begins just below the top line of the working line or the middle of the line (in a “lined” notebook).

The lower type of connection includes letters that begin just above the bottom line of the working line: a, b, d, l, m, o, f, i; to the medium-smooth type - letters whose beginning is in the middle of the working line: v, g, e, ё, zh, z, x, h, b.

In the book by L.S. Vygotsky’s “Thinking and Speech” says that a concept is formed when sensations are formed. This idea was the basis for the work of E.N. Potapova. Thus, she began to form the concept of a letter through sensations.

Learning to write is divided into three stages. The first stage is the development of muscle memory, where special attention is given to such type of work as shading; the second stage is the development of tactile memory, the main goal of which is to connect in the child’s memory a sample of an uppercase (lowercase) and lowercase letter and their connections; and the third stage - consolidation of the received information using a letter stencil, in which children develop the correct inclination of letters and consolidate acquired skills: writing direction, writing a letter and its elements.

Using Potapova’s method, you can teach children to write quickly, beautifully, and cheerfully. Her methodology allows us to cultivate children's originality, creative spirit, and also ensures the development of the student's personality.

The main principle, the “starting point”, in the methodology of teaching calligraphy by Ilyukhina V.A., teacher-methodologist high school No. 4 in Shcherbinki, Moscow region, there became a need to teach children to write beautifully. “I believe that teaching writing should be part of aesthetic education, a way of comprehending beauty. This is especially important during the period of handwriting conflict, which coincides with the period of personality formation. I am convinced that such positive qualities as accuracy, dedication, attention, a sense of harmony, the desire to bring joy to a person close to you through your work - all this can successfully shape the teaching of writing.”

All calligraphy training comes down to learning how to write a few basic elements.

First of all, this is writing a straight slanted line. Moreover, the lines must be located strictly at the same distance from each other and be the same height (the height of the capital and capital letters).

The next thing is the ability to divide a line into 2 or 3 equal parts, since writing letters such as n, k, i, b is special, and when connecting all the letters it is absolutely necessary to be able to find these parts.

In addition, Ilyukhina teaches children such elements as “turn in place” (rounding), “hook to the middle,” or, as the children call it, “ballerina shoe,” which should not be too narrow so that the “ballerina letter” didn’t fall,” but not too wide, “so that it would be beautiful.” And also Ilyukhina’s students know a special “secret”, and it consists in the fact that when writing letters such as, for example, and, and many others, when writing the last element “a stick with a curve at the bottom”, we move the pen along the already written line , we repeat it, “hide the secret.” The writing of each letter is accompanied by the pronunciation of its elements.

All exercises are performed constantly. Children learn to write to the beat (like N.G. Agarkova), on command. Tact for the writing hand means the same as for dancing feet. Strict size in motion is the whole secret of beautiful and fast writing.

Such teaching of writing helps to obtain not only the quality of work, but also competent writing; children learn geometric material faster, make much fewer mistakes when reading, and they undoubtedly have a desire to learn.

Depending on what position a particular methodologist adheres to, he accordingly builds the proposed systems for teaching writing. We looked at several such systems. There is something new in them, but there is also something traditionally “old”.

Thus, practical application has shown that there is nothing fundamentally new in the methods of Potapova, Agarkova, and Ilyukhina. Their research is based on the experience of many subject specialists. Potapova’s method traces the genetic method of writing, copying and others, invented a long time ago. We find the clock method, as well as the font method, in Ilyukhina and Agarkova. The methods of Potapova and Fedosova make it possible to develop not only the small muscles of the fingers, but also all types of memory: tactile, visual and auditory. And the more types of developmental memory a child has, the faster and more firmly he will assimilate educational material. Ilyukhina’s technique develops clarity in following the teacher’s instructions and voluntary attention.

State budgetary professional educational institution

"Kurgan Pedagogical College"

Methods, methods and techniques for developing calligraphy skills in students primary classes

Course work

Discipline Russian language with teaching methods

Student Mayorova A.V.

Specialty 050146 Teaching in primary school

Head: Okhotnikova N.S.

Kurgan 2014

Introduction………………………………………………………………………………… 4

Historical and critical review of teaching penmanship… ………… 6

Psychophysiological foundations of learning to write………………… 7

Traditional methods, methods and techniques of teaching writing……… 8

4.1 Potapova E.N. “The Joy of Knowledge”…………………………….10

Ilyukhina V.A. “Letter with a Secret”…………………………… 11

Teaching writing to right-handed and left-handed children………………… 13

5.1 Diagnosis of handedness………………………………14

5.2 Hygienic conditions for writing by right-handed children………………16

5.3 Hygienic conditions for writing by left-handed children……………… 18

5.4 Teaching writing to left-handed children……………………………… 19

Mistakes of left-handed children and ways to eliminate them………………… 20

6. Studying the work experience of teachers from different regions of Russia...... 21

Conclusion……………………………………………………………………………… 25

List of sources used……………………………27

APPENDICES 1

APPENDIX 2

APPENDIX 3

APPENDIX 4

APPENDIX 5

APPENDIX 6

APPENDIX 7

APPENDIX 8

APPENDIX 9

APPENDIX 10

APPENDIX 11

APPENDIX 12

APPENDIX 13

APPENDIX 14

APPENDIX 15

APPENDIX 16

APPENDIX 17

APPENDIX 18

Introduction

From the first days a student enters school, they begin to teach him those initial reading and writing skills, without which further learning and acquisition of knowledge is impossible. Reading and writing are closely related, but each of these skills has its own specifics.

The specificity of the letter is that it has two sides - graphic and spelling. The child must learn to write not only clearly and fairly quickly, but also competently. Very often this causes certain difficulties for most schoolchildren.

Calligraphy is the art of writing in clear, beautiful handwriting. Today, unfortunately, most students, like most of us, have far from calligraphic handwriting.

The process of developing calligraphic writing skills is impossible without taking into account the literacy requirements of all records produced (spelling, grammatical, speech literacy). Research by famous linguists and methodologists (K.D. Ushinsky, S.P. Redozubov) has established that the degree of proficiency in writing technique, its calligraphic side, influences the literacy of writing. For example, with large handwriting, children have a harder time learning spelling. This happens because child's eye covers words written in large handwriting with tension and does not perceive spelling correctly. Also, the appearance of spelling errors is often caused by unclear or incorrect images of the shape of letters, connections, and careless writing of words.

Thus, calligraphy influences spelling, and therefore the student’s intelligence, so the topic of this course work relevant. This is confirmed by the statement of linguist S.P. Redozubova: “By fighting for good handwriting and a good notebook, we are essentially fighting for the literacy of students.”

The purpose of this course work: to reveal methods, methods and techniques for developing calligraphic writing skills in primary schoolchildren.

We set the following tasks:

Analyze psychological, pedagogical and methodological literature on this topic.

Consider the traditions, methods and techniques of working on the formation of calligraphic writing skills in primary schoolchildren using the example of traditional and original methods of teaching writing.

Reveal the features of teaching writing to right-handed and left-handed children.

Analyze and summarize the experience of teachers from different regions of Russia on this topic.

The object of this course work is the methodology of teaching the Russian language in primary school.

The subject of the work is the traditions, methods and techniques of developing calligraphic skills in Russian language lessons in primary school.

Methods:

Studying psychological, pedagogical and scientific-methodological literature on this topic.

Analysis of existing practice in developing calligraphic skills.

Generalization of systematization of methods and techniques for developing calligraphic skills

Studying the experience of teachers from different regions of Russia.

Deadlines: 1.10.2012- 15.04.2013

1. Historical and critical review of teaching penmanship

The development of calligraphy techniques is associated with the history of writing, the emergence of which, in turn, was influenced by the stages of historical development of society, the expanding and increasingly complex needs of people for communication, and the achievements of scientific, technical and cultural progress of mankind.

As in any other area of ​​pedagogical science, in the field of teaching penmanship there was a struggle of ideas, opinions, and methods. The winner was what at a certain historical stage most satisfied the needs of society.

In the 17th century learning to write was very difficult; the method of mechanical exercises and rewriting was used. Students spent several months copying the same letters in alphabetical order, syllables, and sentences, often not being able to read what was written. When teaching writing, the graphic difficulties of the written alphabet and the difficulties of mastering literacy were not taken into account.

After a while, teaching writing was introduced into primary school courses as an academic subject. It was part of a series of art objects. It was important to write beautifully and quickly. In the middle of the 19th century. A number of manuals for teaching cursive writing appear: Polovtsev “Cursive Writing Course”, Barantsevich “Cursive Writing Guide”, etc.

The expanding needs of society for writing required a change not only in the font, but also in the methods of teaching writing, which was separate from learning to read. The letters were written in alphabetical order from “a” to “izhitsa”. The main method of teaching writing was mechanical repetition of exercises in writing letters, words and sentences.

In 1824 - 1870 K.D. Ushinsky created a new technique. He proposed teaching children writing together with reading, i.e. meaningful. Thus, the order of learning to write depended on the order of learning to read. Due to the introduction of the new methodology, students began to master writing more successfully. This principle is still applied in schools today.

In the XIX - XX centuries. A variety of methodological literature on teaching children to write appears. Among them, it is worth noting the methodological manuals of I.E. Evseeva. His method of teaching penmanship provides a historical overview and origin of individual methods of teaching penmanship, describes in detail the order of studying letters in groups and methodological techniques for teaching writing, and includes copybooks and samples of different fonts.

Thus, the development of calligraphy techniques directly depends on the demands of society at a certain historical stage.

Psychophysiological foundations of learning to write

In order to properly teach children penmanship, it is necessary to know the psychophysiological foundations of learning to write, i.e. how graphic writing skills are formed, what are best conditions formation of these skills.

Graphic writing skills are sensory skills. They are associated with human learning activities and serve the process of writing. This is the specificity and complexity of their formation. They are formed together with reading, spelling, and the development of written speech.

The writing process is complex and covers various areas of human mental activity. Writing, both from memory and from dictation, is associated with various anatomical and physiological structures of the brain. As a number of works have shown (R.E. Levina, Zh.I. Shif, S.M. Blinkova, A.R. Luria), disorders of certain areas of the cerebral cortex lead to various disorders of writing and written speech. Studying the nature of these disorders made it possible to consider different areas of the cerebral cortex in connection with different types of written speech. The temporal regions of the left hemisphere of the brain are associated with auditory analysis during the writing process. The posterior central areas of the left hemisphere are also associated with writing processes - specifically with the control of movements through the articulatory systems of speech. The occipito-parietal region is associated with the visual organization of the writing process. Compliance with the alternation and sequence of the required repetition of letters is associated with the premotor area of ​​the cortex and the preservation of the motor image of the word. The left frontal lobes, the motor center of speech, are most associated with the preservation of intention when writing.

By school age, not all areas of the cerebral cortex are morphologically and functionally developed in a child, especially the frontal lobes of the cortex; this can cause certain difficulties in the process of learning to write. When developing a particular skill, it is required that the student be prepared to learn this skill.

Thus, the writing process is associated with the activity of all areas of the cerebral cortex, although their role in different types of writing is not the same.

Traditions, ways and techniques of teaching writing

In the system of teaching writing, methods such as copying, linear, rhythmic, genetic, and the Carster method have become widespread. IN different years preference was given to any one of them.

Teaching spelling using the copy (or stigmatographic) method consisted of tracing letters printed in special notebooks (with dots) or handwritten by the teacher with a pencil. /APPENDIX 1/ The method was introduced into schools in the 19th century. and it was hoped that long, mechanical tracing of beautiful writing samples should eventually develop the correct shape of the letters. Advanced methodologists of the late 19th and early 20th centuries. (I.E. Evseev, F.V. Grekov) criticized this method for the fact that such training does not lead to conscious mastery of handwriting, but is built on a mechanical exercise that dulls the mind.

However, many methodologists (D.A. Pisarevsky, N.I. Bogolyubov) recognized that the use of the copy method in individual work with children early stage training is quite appropriate.

Thus, all methodologists allowed the limited use of the copy method for any special purposes.

The linear method also has its origins in the distant past. This method is based on a font approach to learning - equal distances between elements of letters, exact proportions of the height and width of the letter and its parts. The letter and words could be written using an auxiliary grid that determined the height of the letter, the slope, the distance between the elements, etc.

Most methodologists before the revolution and in Soviet times saw the harmful effects of frequent oblique mesh, recommended using it very limitedly, or called for its abandonment: E.V. Guryanov, F.G. Golovanov.

The genetic method is that letters are learned in order from a graphically simple letter in shape to a graphically more complex one. Based on the composition of similar elements, letters are divided into groups of increasing graphic complexity. However, all methodologists understood that it was impossible to write letters without understanding them, to teach writing in isolation from learning to read. The genetic method in our schools was used only to improve the writing of letters, syllables, and words.

The tactical (or rhythmic) method is writing under counting, at the same tempo and rhythm for all students. /APPENDIX 2/

The rhythmic method has its disadvantages and advantages. But most methodologists recognize the positive features of the tactical method (with its limited use), since it is convenient for working with the whole class, increases interest in classes, develops confidence and smooth hand movements, and helps establish the desired speed of writing.

Another common method is teaching writing by writing special exercises for the development of hand movements: fingers, hands, forearms. This method went down in history as the method of the Englishman Carster, who described it at the beginning of the 19th century. Using this method, free and fast hand movements are achieved: first writing 19 elements in close-up, then letters connected by special strokes, then words without auxiliary lines. Such strokes are necessary for mastering the ability to use the space of a sheet, for developing ease of hand movement. /APPENDIX 3/

These methods of teaching writing are traditional. In the practice of broad training, not one of them has justified itself as the only one. The best results have always been achieved through a reasonable combination of these methods at a certain stage of learning to write.

Potapova E.N. "The Joy of Knowledge"

One of the most popular author’s techniques for teaching writing is a technique developed by Evgenia Nikolaevna Potapova and called “The Joy of Learning.” Teaching writing using this method is divided into three stages. The first stage is the development of muscle memory, the second is the development of tactile memory, the third is the consolidation of knowledge and skills using letter inserts. All stages are interconnected and combined in one lesson.

The first stage - the development of muscle memory - determines the success of all training.

The development of muscle memory is carried out using shading. Children shade objects they have drawn or constructed using curly rulers with carved lines on them. geometric shapes. /APPENDIX 4/

Hatching rules: hatch only in a given direction, do not go beyond the contours of the drawing, maintain the same distance between lines (strokes). Children accept these conditions quickly, easily, like in a game. Children begin shading from the first lesson and continue until the end of the literacy period.

The second stage is the development of tactile memory.

A child’s concept is formed when a sensation is formed. For this purpose, the second stage of this method of teaching writing involves the use in the lesson of cards with letters cut out of soft paper. sandpaper(or from thick thread) and glued to these cards. /APPENDIX 5/ With the index finger of the hand, the student feels the contours of the letters, remembers their images, elements, and direction of writing.

Game moments greatly contribute to strong memorization of letters. They have great importance, especially when working with first graders.

The main goal of the two stages is to teach how to divide complex geometric shapes into parallel segments - strokes, to develop muscle memory, and to create a model of a letter in the child’s memory. As a result of the implementation of these goals, students’ hands are trained, their thinking and speech develop.

The third stage is writing letters using an insert (“Letter Festival”). It lasts 10 - 14 days. During this time, the skills developed in the first two stages are consolidated, i.e. With the help of letter inserts, children develop the correct inclination of letters and consolidate acquired skills: writing direction, writing a letter and its elements.

Method of teaching writing by E.N. Potapova allows, in the process of game situations, through sensations with the active inclusion of visual and auditory analyzers, to form the concept of a letter and its graphic outline, to develop logical thinking, internal and external speech, memory, as well as the creative abilities of students, to solve in a complex the tasks of teaching and upbringing. In addition, this method allows you to effectively develop in primary schoolchildren not only calligraphic writing skills, but also writing speed; the method has a positive effect on the development of handwriting.

4.2 V.A. Ilyukhin “Letter with a Secret”

Another well-known technique for developing calligraphic writing skills is a technique developed by Ilyukhina Valentina Alekseevna and called “Writing with a Secret.”

This method includes 4 stages:

Introducing children to new activities. Learning to write from the very beginning

minutes is built on fairy-tale material. Children go to the amazing country of Literalland, where interesting meetings and overcoming obstacles await them. At this stage, children look at interesting things made by human hands, including notebooks with beautiful, correct handwriting.

Familiarization with the basic writing algorithm, consisting of 7

Writing straight slanted lines at intervals and

parallelism of lines.

Ability to divide an inclined line, a working line into 2 and 3 parts

vertically in order to prepare for the correct execution of connections of letter elements and letters in a word.

Ability to correctly perform a curve on the bottom line

working line as a link with the subsequent element.

The ability to correctly lift up - to the side after rounding,

to the middle of the line - writing a hook line, which, together with a straight slant and a rounding, is called a hook.

Letter of "secret" - a line that continues the hook line

from the middle of the line to its top line.

Letter down the "secret" to the bottom line of the line, i.e. writing

the second slanted line, which is parallel to the first slanted line (“hide the secret”).

Completing the writing of the second hook (second rounding and

second “hook line”).

All 7 parts of the algorithm determine the writing of the letter And, and individually or severally together they are included in the writing of many letters of the Russian alphabet. This means that when writing the remaining letters, children will not encounter new elements; their writing will be mostly prepared.

Using the basic writing algorithm when writing all

letters, practicing specific elements of writing each letter. This is a longer stage that should correspond to the alphabetic period.

Automation of graphic skills and further development of the ability to pronounce the way to write a letter.

This technology promotes the development of memory, attention, logical thinking, written and oral speech of students, and creates positive motivation for learning. Children learn educational material faster and better, which speeds up the process of developing calligraphic writing skills.

Teaching writing to right-handed and left-handed children

When teaching children to write, the teacher's methodological knowledge plays an important role. Recently, the Russian language methodology has described various techniques and exercises that help develop graphic skills. The main ones are the following:

1. Students copying from a ready-made sample - copybooks, teacher's sample on the board or in a notebook.

2. The teacher demonstrates the writing process and explains how to write letters, syllables, words, sentences on the board or individually in the student’s notebook.

3. Trace a sample letter (copying technique).

4. Imaginary letter, letter in the air.

5. Analysis of the letter shape with highlighting of visual elements.

6. Technique of showing erroneous spelling.

7. Letter for invoice.

Diagnosis of handedness

In order to ensure that students comply with certain hygienic requirements (for left-handed or right-handed people), the teacher is obliged to determine the child’s handedness in the 1st grade, i.e. the child’s preference for the right or left hand when writing, drawing, etc.

There are many exercises and tests to determine handedness.

The effectiveness of testing depends on compliance with certain conditions:

You should not fix the child's attention on what he has

trying to determine something. It’s better to say: “Now we’ll play with you.”

The adult should sit at the table opposite the child.

All aids and objects should be placed in front of the baby on

middle of the table.

If the child gets tired while completing tasks, it is necessary

give him a chance b relax, get up, stretch.

During testing, it is convenient to fill out the table. /APPENDIX 6/ If there is a strong preference for the left hand, a plus sign (+) is placed in the “left hand” column; if there is a preference for the right hand, it is placed in the “right hand” column. If, when performing a test, a child uses both his right and left hands equally often, a plus is placed in the “both hands” column.

Task 1. Drawing. A sheet of paper and a pencil are placed in front of the child and asked to draw something. Then he draws the same thing with his other hand. This task takes into account in which case the quality of the drawing is better - smoother and clearer strokes, straighter corners.

Task 2. Opening a small box. The child is asked to open several boxes to eliminate randomness in the assessment of this test.

Task: 3 “Find a match (figure) in one of the boxes.” The leading hand is the one that performs the active action (opens and closes the boxes).

Task 4. Building a house from matches (sticks). The leading hand is the one that works more actively.

Task 5. Ball game. A tennis ball is placed on the table directly in front of the child, and the teacher asks him to throw the ball to him. The task must be repeated several times.

Task 6. Using scissors, cut out the outline of the picture from the postcard. The leading hand is considered to be the more active hand, and this is not necessarily the hand in which the child holds the scissors, since the scissors can be motionless, and he will turn the card, making the cutting process easier.

Task 7. Stringing beads (or buttons) on a needle and thread or lace. The leading hand is the one that performs the active movement, regardless of which hand the child holds the needle or lace.

Task 8. Performing rotational movements (opening and closing lids). The leading hand is the one that is more active. Moreover, the child can hold the bottle by the cap and twist the bottle itself.

Task 9. Making a chain of paper clips. The child holds a paperclip in one hand, and the leader tries to attach the second.

Task 10. Building a house, car, etc. from cubes. With the dominant hand, the child more often takes, places and adjusts cubes and parts.

Task 11. Data on family left-handedness (for parents). If there are left-handed relatives in the family, you need to put a plus in the “left hand” column; if not, in the “right hand” column.

If the test results in more than seven pluses (70% of tasks) in the “left-handed” column, then the child is most likely left-handed. If in the “left hand” column you get all the pluses for tasks 2-9, and for task 1 – drawing – the plus will be in the “right hand” column, this means that the child can better perform everyday activities with his left hand, and graphic ones with his right. In this case, when choosing a hand for writing, you should take into account the advantage of the right one in performing graphic actions.

Often a child writes with both the right and left hands, sometimes draws with the left and writes with the right, or shifts the pen from one hand to the other, alternately using the right and left hands, which greatly complicates the process of developing writing skills.

Research by French scientists has shown that 90% of “graphic left-handers” also turn out to be “everyday left-handers.” The same ratio applies to right-handers. But there are children who are ambidextrous (equally good with both their right and left hands) in both everyday and graphic activities. This variety of options creates difficulties when choosing a hand for writing.

Thus, there are many exercises that allow you to determine the student’s leading hand, which allows the teacher to organize the educational process taking into account the individual characteristics of each child, and make this process as productive as possible.

Hygienic conditions for writing by right-handed children

Success in learning penmanship largely depends on the student’s fulfillment of the most important hygienic requirements in the writing process: correct posture, position of the pen in the hand, placement of the notebook on the desk, which ultimately helps to prevent problems with children’s posture and vision, improve performance, and form clear, quick writing.

Correct determination of the duration of continuous writing is of great importance for compliance with hygienic requirements. When performing large-volume exercises, children should be given rest and eye exercises should be introduced. It is also necessary to carry out 2-3 physical training minutes / APPENDIX 7/, special exercises for the development of fingers, hands, and forearm. /APPENDIX 8/

Hygienic conditions for writing for right-handed and left-handed children have their own characteristics, certain similarities and differences.

The general seating requirements for right-handed and left-handed children are the following rules:

Sit straight.

Keep your torso, head, and shoulders straight.

Lean your back on the back of the chair.

The seat of the chair should extend beyond the edge of the table.

The chair is moved under the table so that, when leaning on the back, a palm or fist is placed between the chest and the table.

You cannot lean your chest on the edge of the desk.

The distance from the eyes to the book (notebook) is approximately 30 cm.

The hands on the desk lie freely: the right hand and left hand are on the notebook (for right-handers), the left hand and right hand are on the notebook (for left-handers).

Place both hands in the forearm area on the edge of the table, with your elbows protruding beyond the edge.

Keep your legs straight, place your feet on the floor or a stand.

Both legs should rest their entire feet on the floor.

The light should fall from the left (for right-handers), from the right (for left-handers). /APPENDIX 9/

Special attention You should also pay attention to how to hold the pen correctly. There are some peculiarities here for right-handed children.

The position of the pen in the hand when writing a right-handed child / APPENDIX 10:

The pen is held with three fingers: thumb, index and middle. It is located between the thumb and middle finger, the index finger holds it on top.

Do not hold the handle tightly.

The index finger should not bend.

The fingers are slightly extended.

The distance from the tip of the index finger to the ball of the pen is 2 - 2.5 cm.

When writing, you need to lightly press the pen with your index finger.

It is important to teach students to correctly place the notebook on the desk / APPENDIX 11, A /:

The notebook should lie directly in front of the child and be slightly shifted so that its lower right edge is slightly to the right. This option allows you to sit correctly and easily and freely move your hand along the line from beginning to end.

As the sheet is filled, the notebook moves up. First, the left hand supports it from below, and when the page is filled at the bottom - from above.

It is most advisable to tilt the notebook to the left and write straight, without blocking the line and maintaining the correct posture, moving your right shoulder slightly forward.

The success of teaching children to write largely depends on the hygienic conditions that the teacher creates, and on the children’s compliance with hygienic requirements during this learning process.

Hygienic conditions for writing by left-handed children

The position of the pen in the hand when writing a left-handed child /APPENDIX 10/:

The handle should rest on the right side of the middle finger. The index finger holds it from above, and the thumb supports it on the right side.

Do not squeeze the handle too hard.

The index finger can be lifted easily without the handle falling down.

When writing, the hand rests on the upper joint of the little finger bent inward.

The distance from the tip of the rod to the index finger should be no more than 4 cm. This is slightly higher than for right-handed people, and is necessary in order not to cover the writing line.

You need to hold the pen so that it lines up with your hand.

The location of the notebook on the desk when a left-handed child is writing / APPENDIX 11, B /:

The notebook should lie directly in front of the child and be slightly shifted so that its lower left edge is slightly to the left. This option allows you to sit correctly and easily and freely move your hand along the line from beginning to end.

As the sheet is filled, the notebook moves up. At first, the right hand supports it from below, and when the page is filled at the bottom, from above.

It is most advisable to tilt the notebook to the right and write straight, without blocking the line and maintaining the correct posture, moving your left shoulder slightly forward.

Thus, the success of teaching left-handed children to write largely depends on the hygienic conditions that the teacher creates, and on the children’s compliance with hygienic requirements during this learning process.

Teaching writing to left-handed children

Particular attention should be paid to how to help a left-handed child learn to write and what teaching method to use.

A left-handed child needs special help in the initial stages of learning:

It is necessary to fix attention on the right-left orientation of the strokes, otherwise mirror writing is possible;

Particular attention should be paid to the direction of writing: from left to right;

It is necessary to analyze in great detail and carefully the trajectory of movements when writing each element (letter);

Review the instructions in great detail with your child;

Complete all tasks at a slow pace.

A teacher teaching a left-handed child should first of all keep in mind the following points:

1. The slowness of left-handed children should not be the subject of reproaches. A left-hander cannot be rushed; in the hustle and bustle he can make a lot of mistakes.

2. The need to create a calm, friendly atmosphere during classes, designed to calm anxious students.

3. It is necessary to take into account the different organization of the activity of the cerebral hemispheres of a left-handed child from right-handers, which is reflected in his activity.

4. The presence of confusion in the spatial representations of left-handed children with the consequent need to look for an arithmetic error.

5. The need to use a step-by-step presentation of the material, highlighting the necessary stages in the process of mastering any algorithm, which makes it easier for left-handed children to build a logical chain for mastering this material and creating a holistic picture of what they have learned.

6. The need to use creative tasks in work that provide intellectual development, maintaining interest in work.

7. The need to maintain feedback with a left-handed child.

8. Treat errors philosophically, with the interest of natural scientists.

Thus, when teaching left-handed children to write, it is necessary to take them into account individual characteristics and, in accordance with them, choose the right methodology that will make the learning process more productive and interesting.

Mistakes of left-handed children and ways to eliminate them

Observations of the writing of left-handed children and analysis of their workbooks show that the most common mistakes are in which children confuse letters that are close in shape and have difficulty placing them. In order to properly organize work to prevent errors of this kind, you should take a closer look at the spelling of these letters. Thus, the first group of letters has an organization when depicted from left to right, as well as a symmetrical structure: E, Z; S, E; k, n, g. When writing these letters, “mirror writing” errors often occur. To prevent a mirror image, it is necessary to include in the preliminary work a visual analysis of the letter (where the letter is looking, where it originates, what elements it consists of), and the construction of the letter from its elements. It is better to write this letter in albums with written letters and their elements, where in each letter the beginning is indicated by a red arrow, and the trajectory of movement is indicated by black arrows. When writing these letters, it is advisable to mark the beginning of each letter in red.

The second group of letters is shaped like this, where the top of one letter matches the bottom of another: t, w; p, i; c, d. To prevent errors in the image of these letters, they should be visually compared and compared, as well as superimposing one letter on another. When writing in notebooks, introduce special pointers and supports (dots) for them. After writing the letters, you need to compare them with the sample by visual comparison or overlaying the sample written by the teacher on transparent paper.

The third group of letters and elements has no orientation in space (o). When writing ovals, supports and indicators are especially necessary to show the beginning and direction of movement when writing them.

Another type of error includes errors that are caused by forgetting rare letter forms: H, h; X, x; F, f. To more accurately remember the configuration of these letters, you should enter a figurative image of these letters. For example, the letter x can be seen in a walking person, h - in the spout of a teapot, f - in glasses, etc.

The proposed work on preventing visual errors, preparing the hand for the trajectory of movements and orientation in a line helps to remove negative phenomena when teaching left-handed children to write.

Studying the work experience of teachers from different regions of Russia

Teaching calligraphic writing is one of the most important tasks of primary school, therefore every primary school teacher must have a working methodology for teaching writing to children, both right-handed and left-handed.

During a writing lesson in 1st grade, taught by primary school teacher O.V. Logunova, the following methods of teaching writing were used: graphic analysis of letters, step-by-step writing of letters in copybooks, letter based on a letter. The visual teaching method was actively used, exercises were performed to develop figurative memory, coordination of movements, speech and thinking of students. The methods and techniques used by the teacher in the lesson form the calligraphic writing skill of 1st grade students. /APPENDIX 13/

T.S. Sizova, a primary school teacher at school No. 2006 in Moscow, conducted a writing lesson in 1st grade, in which V.A.’s writing teaching methodology was used. Ilyukhina “Letter with a Secret.” During the lesson, various types of letter connections were practiced, and spatial orientation exercises were performed. The teacher used copying techniques, techniques of showing and explaining, a detailed analysis of the elements of the letter, comparison with a model, and shading. This lesson presented current methods and techniques that promote the development of calligraphic writing skills in first-graders. /APPENDIX 14/

Writing lesson taught by I.I. Buslova, a primary school teacher in Moscow, also includes many relevant and effective methods for teaching children to write. The following types of work were carried out during the lesson: copying from printed text, an exercise to develop tactile memory. Motivation for learning was carried out by including in the lesson game moments, creating situations of success. In this lesson, we practiced the step-by-step writing of a letter, connections, the teacher showed a sample of writing a letter, and self-analysis. The lesson is interesting, meaningful, includes different methods teaching writing. /APPENDIX 15/

Primary school teacher in the village. Kalininsky Mariinsky district Kemerovo region M.S. Prudnikova, in a writing lesson in 1st grade, used no less interesting and effective techniques for practicing writing skills: writing with a wet finger on the board, writing with a finger on the palm, writing with a finger on a friend’s back. These techniques contribute to children’s high-quality mastery of calligraphic writing skills. Exercises were performed to develop speech, thinking, and tactile memory. The methods used in the lesson are relevant and contribute to the formation of calligraphic writing skills. /APPENDIX 16/

Primary school teacher at State Educational Institution Secondary School No. 932, Moscow. T.V. Manokhina used assignments in an additional album (2-3 minutes) during writing lessons.

Children love to draw. The album contains a stencil made with an awl. The student learns the image of a letter through touch (feels the tattoos of letters or their elements).

A permanent calligraphy stand is being set up (replaceable canvas).

Special working techniques are used to maintain the same height, distance, correction for clone, and place of connection of letters.

Special techniques for grouping letters by common elements. These are the letters “wheels”, “rocket”, “bugs”, “fences”.

Game "Bumps". We must escape from the wolf. Students find hummocks along which they can cross the swamp, but there is a condition - they can stand on hummocks where there are letters with the same elements.

Game “House of Lost and Found” (we consolidate the degree of memorization of letters). Which letter has lost this element?

Teachers of the Pskov Pedagogical College E. A. Zhukova, S. G. Ivanushkina offer the following systems of work in literacy lessons in grade 1 according to the I-IV program. WITH preparatory lessons When teaching first-graders basic writing, work is done on unlined sheets and in wide-ruled notebooks with the possible use of a slanted stencil. At the stage of letterless literacy learning, children become familiar with the basic structural units of the graphic system and practice drawing eight elements. Children develop the important ability to reproduce elements in a given sequence. In the process of reproducing a border pattern and a graphic stroke, consisting of an unusual combination of letter elements, the technique of copying is used. The preparatory period provides the opportunity to conduct 40 lessons in which children prepare for calligraphically correct writing, as well as lay the foundation for the formation of graphic skills. Writing lessons in 1st grade are conducted in an integrated manner. The topic of reading lessons and the plot design of writing lessons are interconnected. From lessons 1 to 6, children become familiar with various types of shading, working on unlined paper. During the same lessons, children work in parallel in notebooks, using ballpoint pens with colored pastes. From the 6th to the 4th lessons, patterns appear on the sheets - borders made with pencils, in which elements of letters are used. In the notebooks, strokes are introduced, samples of which are given by the teacher, followed by auxiliary dotted lines, and then independent reproduction of the stroke. Before the end of the letterless period of learning to read and write, children must learn to write all the structural elements of the letters of the Russian alphabet, as well as individual letters. When learning a new letter from lesson 39, the design of the work on an unlined sheet of paper changes. The sheet is divided in half. The left half is used to form a visual image of a written letter; the work is carried out jointly by the teacher and students on the board and sheet. At this stage of work, the initially formed visual image of the letter being studied should be consolidated in the system of corresponding hand movements. For this purpose, motor and visual elements are used. The right side of the sheet is left for students’ independent creative work to form images of the written letters they are studying. Such tasks contribute to the repetition, consolidation and systematization of the studied graphic material, but most importantly, they perform a developmental function.

During the work, we analyzed teaching materials, developed by primary school teachers from different regions of Russia. The results of the study showed that all teachers use different methods of teaching children to write in the classroom, depending on the individual characteristics of each student in their class. Teaching writing is a very complex process. Teachers agree that when teaching writing it is necessary to consider two sides: graphic and calligraphic. The child must:

Correctly translate the phoneme into graphics.

Write the letter in accordance with calligraphy requirements.

It is very difficult for a child to solve these problems at the same time.

Conclusion

Formation of calligraphic writing skills in primary school children is one of the most important tasks of primary school: it is the primary school that determines how the child will relate to the writing process in the future. It is important for a primary school teacher not only to promote the formation of calligraphic handwriting, but also to develop in every student the need for correct, beautiful and quick writing.

During the study, the psychological and pedagogical aspects of the formation of calligraphic skills were studied. It has been established that writing for children entering school is a complex process that requires continuous, intense control. Writing is associated with all types of mental activity of a child, so often when children enter school they experience difficulties in learning to write. The formation of calligraphic writing skills has great pedagogical and social educational significance. By teaching children to write neatly and clearly, taking care of the stability of their handwriting, the teacher instills in them accuracy, hard work, a conscientious and diligent attitude towards performing any work, not only written work, a respectful attitude towards people, towards their work, and finally, contributes to their aesthetic education .

The author characterized the work of a primary school teacher in developing calligraphic writing skills, taking into account the individual characteristics of each student, using traditional and original methods, methods and techniques for developing calligraphic skills, revealing the principles of organizing comprehensive assistance to children with learning difficulties. We came to the conclusion that writing lessons should not evoke negative emotions in children. The teacher must work creatively and arouse interest at every stage of the lesson. During the lessons, children do not just copy the teacher’s model, but create a letter themselves, which contributes to the development of creative imagination, thinking, spatial concepts, hand motor skills, and successful and confident mastery of graphic and calligraphic writing skills.

Particular attention is paid to the peculiarities of teaching left-handed and right-handed children. Recently, the Russian language methodology has described various techniques and exercises that help develop graphic skills. The main ones are the following:

Copying by students from a ready-made sample - a copybook, a teacher's sample on the board or in a notebook.

The teacher demonstrates the writing process and explains how to write letters, syllables, words, sentences on the board or individually in the student’s notebook.

Tracing a sample letter (copying technique).

Imaginary letter, letter in the air.

Analysis of letter shapes highlighting visual elements.

Technique for showing erroneous spelling.

Letter on account.

The most effective way is for the teacher to implement not just one, but all of the above techniques, which will allow him to diversify the student’s activities and achieve the greatest success in teaching children to write. At different stages of training, the degree of application of one or another technique will be different, which depends on the level of mastery of writing skills.

Having analyzed notes from writing lessons taught by primary school teachers from different regions of Russia, we came to the conclusion that each teacher uses traditional methods teaching writing, combining them with our own, unconventional techniques.

During the work, the assigned tasks were solved, the goal was achieved.

This work is of an abstract nature. Coursework materials can be used in preparing teachers and students for writing lessons, in lessons on theory and methods of teaching the Russian language, as well as in upcoming practice.

List of sources used

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ANNEX 1

Examples of copy method exercises

APPENDIX 3

Samples of simple and complex strokes using the Carster method

(Copybook “Russian graphics 1st grade” by N.G. Agarkov)

APPENDIX 4

Hatching samples using the method of E.N. Potapova

(Potapova E.N. “The Joy of Knowledge”)

APPENDIX 5

Samples of cards with letters made of thick thread according to the method of Potapova E.N.

APPENDIX 7

Entertaining physical education minutes for developing correct posture and maintaining the health of students

"First grade"

First class on charge.

We will sit down ten times.

Let's raise our hands high

We will always live without boredom.

Let's turn right, left,

We will work again boldly.

"What I did?"

On Monday I swam

And on Tuesday I painted.

On Wednesday I took a long time to wash my face,

And on Thursday I played football.

On Friday I jumped, ran,

I danced for a very long time.

And on Saturday, Sunday -

I rested the whole day.

"Lfrogs»

There are two girlfriends in the swamp,

Two green frogs

In the morning we washed ourselves early,

Rubbed with a towel,

They stomped their feet,

They clapped their hands,

Leaned to the right, to the left

And they returned back.

"Leshy"

A goblin walked along the path,

I found a mushroom in a clearing.

One fungus, two fungi,

Here's the full box.

The goblin groans: tired,

From doing squats.

The goblin stretched sweetly,

And then he bent backwards

And then he bent forward

And he reached the floor.

And left and right

Turned around. Well, fine!

Leshy performed a warm-up

And he sat down on the path.

"Who Can"

Who, tell me, can, children,

Repeat these movements?

I'll raise my hands up

I'll look left and right.

And like a bird I will fly.

I'll turn my head

And then I’ll sit down and stand up

And I won’t get tired at all.

I'll jump a little

And I'll go on foot.

If I have to, I'll run.

I can do anything in the world!

"Training"

To become strong and agile (hands on waist, “mighty figure”)

Let's start training (hands up, hands to the side)

Inhale through your nose and exhale through your mouth (lower your hands, breathe through your nose, exhale through your mouth)

Let's breathe deeply, and then (repeat breathing)

Step in place, slowly (walking in place)

How nice the weather is! (hands on belt)

We are not afraid of powder, (turns right, left)

Catching snow - clap your hands (hands in front of you, clapping hands)

Hands to the sides, at the seams (arms to the sides, lower your arms)

Enough snow for us and you.

"Watch"

Tick ​​tock, tick tock

Who in the house can do this?

This is the pendulum in the clock,

Beats every beat (tilts left - right)

And there is a cuckoo sitting in the clock,

She has her own hut (sit in a deep squat)

The bird will crow for time,

Will hide behind the door again (squats)

The arrows move in a circle,

Don't touch each other (torso rotation to the right)

You and I will turn around

Counterclockwise (torso rotation to the left)

And the clock goes on and on (walking in place)

Sometimes they suddenly fall behind (slow down walking pace)

And sometimes they are in a hurry,

As if they want to run away (running in place)

If they don't get started,

Then they completely stand up (stop)

So the game is over

It's time for us to sit down at our desks (sit at your desk).

APPENDIX 8

A set of exercises for developing the fingers, hand, and forearm

Alternately bend the fingers of first the right and then the left hand.

"Orange"
We shared an orange
There are many of us, but he is alone.
This slice is for hedgehogs,
This slice is for the squeeze,
This slice is for ducklings,
This slice is for kittens,
This slice is for the beaver,
And for the wolf - the peel.
He's angry with us - it's a disaster
Run away in all directions!

"My little finger"

My little finger, where have you been?

I cooked cabbage soup with Nameless,

And I ate porridge with the Middle One,

Sang with the Index.

And Big met me

And he treated me to candy.

Index on the right

He led the whole horde of us on a hike.

The middle brother carries a backpack,

The nameless one walks like this

And Littlefinger began to play:

Invite brothers to listen.

The one on the right was dancing.

And he invited me to dance.

"Salad"
We chop and chop the cabbage,
We salt and salt the cabbage,
We eat three or three cabbages,
We press and press cabbage.
We are three or three carrots,
We are a cucumber mode-mode,
Mix and stir the whole salad -
The result was a luxury salad

"One two three four five!"

One two three four five!

Let your fingers go for a walk!

One two three four five!

Let your fingers go for a walk!

I found this finger - a mushroom,

This finger cleans the table,

This one cut

This one ate.

Well, this one just looked!

"Our fingers"

Together the fingers stood in a row (show palms)

Ten strong guys (clench your fingers into a fist)

These two are a guide to everything (show index fingers)

Everything will be shown without prompting.

Fingers - two average (show middle fingers)

Two healthy, cheerful guys.

Well, these ones are nameless (show ring fingers)

Silent, always stubborn.

Two short little fingers (extend your little fingers)

Fidgets and rogues.

Fingers are the main ones (show thumbs)

Two big and bold (clench the remaining fingers into a fist)

"House on the Mountain"

On the mountain we see a house (make a house out of your palms: all fingers touch at the tips - “roof of the house”)

Lots of greenery around (wave-like movements with hands)

Here are the trees, here are the bushes (depict trees and bushes)

Here are the fragrant flowers (draw a “bud” of palms)

There's a fence surrounding everything (draw a fence, mYou can draw a zigzag line in the air with your finger)

Behind the fence is a clean yard (stroke the table with your palmsor air)

We are opening the gates (depict a gate opening)

We quickly run up to the house (fingers “ran” across the table)

We're knocking on the door : (fists on the table) Knock-Knock.

Is someone coming to our door? (put your palm to your ear)

We came to visit a friend,

And they brought gifts (stretch your arms forward)

"Let's go visit"

Guests came running to Zhenya (fingers “run” across the table)

Everyone shook hands (several friendly handshakes)

Hello, Zhora! (thumbs and index fingers are connected by pads)

Hello, Zhanna! (the pads of the thumbs and middle fingers are connected)

Glad, Seryozha! (thumbs and ring fingers join in greeting)

Glad, Snezhana! (thumbs and little fingers greet each other)

Would you like some pie? (palms are connected in the form of a pie)

Maybe a shortbread? (show open palms)

Or a horn? (clench your fists on both hands)

Here's a jelly bean for you (open palms)

Take a little of everything! (pinch palm)

Everyone shook the crumbs off their hands (shake hands)

And they clapped their hands (claps)

APPENDIX 9

Correct posture when writing:

A – right-handed child

B – left-handed child

APPENDIX 10

The position of the pen in the hand when a right-handed child writes

APPENDIX 11

Position of the notebook when writing:

A – right-handed child

B – left-handed child

APPENDIX 6

Handedness determination table

Last name, first name

Age Test date

	The action is performed predominantly
	right hand	with both hands	left hand
1. Drawing
2. Opening a matchbox
3. Finding a match in one of the boxes
4. Building a house from matches (sticks)
5. Ball game
6. Cutting along the contour of the design with scissors
7. Stringing beads on a needle and thread or cord
8. Performing rotational movements (opening and closing lids)
9. Making a chain of paper clips
10. Building a house from cubes
11. Family left-handedness / right-handedness

APPENDIX 12

The position of the pen in the hand when a left-handed child writes

APPENDIX 18

Glossary

Ambidextrous- a person who can use both his right and left hands equally well.

Ddifferentiated approach to teaching the Russian language – a form of organizing the educational work of students based on uniting them within the class team into small groups based on interests and level of readiness.

Graphic arts- a branch of the science of language that deals with the means of writing, the signs used in writing, and their relationship with the sound side of the language.

Writing hygiene – a set of requirements, the fulfillment of which in the process of learning to write allows one to maintain the normal functioning of the student’s body and his health.

Inner speech- a special, unconscious, automatically operating form of speech that a person uses when thinking about solving verbal logical problems.

Visual memory- special character memory for visual impressions, allowing you to retain and reproduce a living image of a previously perceived object or phenomenon.

Mirror letter- one of the manifestations of writing disorders.

Visual image of a letter - it is a visual representation of the shape of a letter character.

Calligraphy(penmanship) - the ability to write clearly, legibly, in accordance with approved samples - copybooks.

Calligraphy errors(writing defects) is a violation of the proportion of letter elements in width, height and angle of inclination.

Left-handedness- preference to operate with the left hand.

Boolean thinking- one of the types of thinking, characterized by the use of concepts and logical structures.

Small motor skills- a set of coordinated actions of the nervous, muscular and skeletal systems, often in combination with the visual system in performing small and precise movements of the hands and fingers and toes.

Methods of teaching writing– section on methods of initial teaching of the Russian language; studies ways to develop skills in elementary writing.

A minute of penmanship– a universal part of the lesson, the purpose of which is to form calligraphically correct, quick and continuous writing.

Motivation- motivation to action.

Teaching writing– an integral part of the process of teaching the Russian language; carried out in 1st grade, then in subsequent grades the skills are consolidated and improved.

Spelling- spelling, a system of rules that determine the uniformity of methods of transmitting speech (words and grammatical forms) in writing.

Letter– graphic speech recording system.

Handwriting– this is a very stable individual education.

Right-handedness - preference to operate with the left hand.

Copybooks– samples of written fonts for teaching schoolchildren

Flourish- a curl that complicates one or another letter writing.

Handedness- predominance or superiority of one hand over the other in writing, drawing, or when performing any other actions.

Copying from printed text– one of the most common types of written exercises; used in teaching writing and calligraphy techniques; when teaching spelling and grammar, usually with additional tasks.

Tactile memory- one of the five main types of senses that a person is capable of, which consists in the ability to feel touch, perceive something with receptors located in the skin, muscles, and mucous membranes.

Calligraphy- a subject of school teaching, with the task of teaching beautiful, clear writing.

Physical education moment– this is the prevention of fatigue, poor posture and vision.

CONTENT

Introduction 3
From the history of teaching penmanship
Goals, objectives and principles of teaching penmanship 9
Psychophysiological features of the formation of graphic writing skills 13
Hygienic conditions for writing 23
Tools and materials for writing 25
Methodological techniques for teaching calligraphic writing skills 29
Qualities of writing and their formation 36
On the relationship between calligraphy and literacy 88
Calligraphy in grades I-IV 92
Calligraphy in 1st grade 93
Calligraphy in grade II 98
Calligraphy in III grade106
Calligraphy in IV grade110
Disadvantages of emerging handwriting and their correction 115
Conclusion 120

Book fragment:

INTRODUCTION
A manual on developing calligraphic, or graphic, writing skills in primary schoolchildren is being published at a time when the reform of the comprehensive school places increased demands on the knowledge, skills and abilities of students. The efforts of Soviet methodologists have always been aimed at developing clear, fast, rhythmic and smooth handwriting in students.
After changes made in the 70s to the methods of teaching calligraphy (E. N. Sokolova, F. G. Golovanov), and testing of these methods in the wider practice of the school, a need arose to make some changes in the organization of teaching calligraphy skills (in particular, introduction of penmanship lessons).
This manual clarifies the procedure for practicing the shape of letters in the post-letter period, simplifies the techniques of continuous writing, and replaces the upper reconnection with oval and semi-oval letters with the lower one.
The basis for this was psychological (E. N. Sokolova) and psychophysiological studies of the convenience of movements of students’ fingers and hands during the writing process when constructing written signs (N. N. Sokolov, A. I. Korvat). The manual uses other methodological techniques, taking into account the fact that children begin to learn writing and penmanship from the age of six.

FROM THE HISTORY OF TEACHING CLEANWRITING
The development of calligraphy techniques is closely related to the history of writing, the emergence and development of which, in turn, was influenced by the stages of historical development of society, the expanding and increasingly complex needs of people in communication, the achievements of scientific, technical and cultural progress of mankind, which dramatically influenced the selection of tools, materials and writing methods. A very long time ago, people, wanting to convey their thoughts and write them down, carved and carved their writing on stone, metal, clay, and wood. Later, soft materials appear: papyrus, parchment, linen, paper; new writing instruments: reed stick, brush, quill pen, steel pen, and finally, ballpoint pens.
As in any other area of ​​pedagogical science, in the field of teaching penmanship there was a struggle of ideas, opinions, and methods. As usual, the winner was the one that at a certain historical stage most satisfied the needs of society.
Thus, steel pens, having appeared at the beginning of the 19th century, came into use in schools only in the second half, not without struggle. And even at the end of the 19th century. voices were heard in favor of goose quills (they are softer, give a more beautiful outline, they can be sharpened according to the hand of the writer, finally, they are cheaper, etc.).
The last argument was important for resolving the issue of teaching writing in schools.
Learning to write was very difficult; the method of mechanical exercises and rewriting was mainly used. Students spent several months copying the same letters in alphabetical order, then syllables, then sentences, often not being able to read what was written. When teaching writing, neither the graphic difficulties of the written alphabet nor the difficulties of mastering literacy were taken into account.
Only under Peter 1 was the font simplified. Russian people began to write in the commonly used European script, modeled on Latin letters. The writing was greatly simplified, but the font was still quite pretentious. The process of learning to write was long, and the desired cursive writing was difficult to achieve.
Over time, teaching writing was introduced into primary school courses as a subject.
Calligraphy was part of the cycle of art objects. Teachers of calligraphy were also teachers of drawing and drawing. It was important to write beautifully and quickly. In the middle of the 19th century. A number of manuals for teaching cursive writing appear: V. Polovtsev “Cursive Writing Course”, Khodorowsky “Cursive Writing Course”, Barantsevich “Cursive Writing Guide”. P. E. Gradoboev published copybooks giving examples of beautiful business writing: statements, accounts, receipts, bills, etc.
The expanding needs of society for writing, the development of office work and various business correspondence required further simplification of the font to speed up and increase the volume of records produced. The civil font, which was created under Peter I, no longer satisfied the needs of society in cursive writing.
At the beginning of the 20th century. The question of simplifying the written font arose with new urgency.
The need for further work in this direction still exists today. Thus, N. I. Tkachenko, D. A. Pisarevsky, E. V. Guryanov, F. G. Golovanov and others wrote about the need to simplify the font. The spread of typewriting, the introduction of fountain pens, especially ballpoint pens, an increase in the flow and volume of information, designed for quick writing in various areas of learning and communication, urgently required changes to the written font. In the 60s, extensive experimental testing was carried out different options new font in the RSFSR and other republics. In 1970, schools adopted a new school written font, significantly simplified, adapted for pressure-free writing with a ballpoint pen and promoting the development of continuous speed writing skills.
Methods of teaching children penmanship have also undergone historical changes. So, until the middle of the 19th century. learning to write was separate from learning to read. The letters were written in alphabetical order from “a” to “izhitsa”. The main method of teaching writing was the mechanical repetition of countless exercises in writing letters, words and sentences.
K. D. Ushinsky proposed teaching writing together with reading, on the basis of reading, that is, meaningfully. Thus, the order of learning to write depended on the order of learning to read. As the practice of using the new method has shown, students mastered more successfully and quickly meaningful writing than writing all letters in a row, regardless of reading mastery. K. D. Ushinsky, being not only a methodologist and teacher, but also a psychologist, put forward the principle of simultaneous teaching of reading and writing because conscious mastery of a graphic sign is simpler, more accessible and more interesting for a child. This principle has been preserved and is applied in schools today.
The improvement of methods proceeded along the lines of taking into account the patterns of formation of graphic writing skills, ease of writing, and increasing the share of consciousness when writing. It was closely connected with the development of related sciences - pedagogy, psychology, school hygiene, physiology, which study, to one degree or another, the process of writing from certain points of view.
At the end of the 19th and beginning of the 20th centuries. A variety of methodological literature on teaching children to write appears. Among them, it is necessary to note the methodological manuals of I. E. Evseev. His “Methods of teaching penmanship” was republished several times. It has still not lost its significance for specialists: it provides a historical overview and the origins of individual methods of teaching penmanship, sets out in detail the order of studying letters in groups and methodological techniques for teaching writing, and includes copybooks and samples of different fonts. The book is written in an accessible and interesting way. It not only provides recipes, but also explains the meaning of each methodological technique.
The methods of V. Gerbach and F.V. Grekov were also of considerable interest.
Since the end of the last century, some research by hygienists has been introduced into the practice of the school. Hygienic requirements for seating are being developed, the most convenient furniture for writing is being developed - school desk Professor F. Erisman. Not only methodologists, but also hygienists A. S. Virenius, V. I. Byvalkevgich and others take part in discussions on teaching writing.
A number of issues are being discussed when teaching writing: whether to teach children straight or oblique writing, using an oblique grid or without it. For a time, straight writing was introduced in a number of countries on the grounds that it (its proponents believed) promoted better posture, fewer cases of squint, and more legible handwriting in children. In Russia, too, direct writing has been introduced for some period in a number of schools. However, the dominance of direct writing did not last long. It turned out that it did not reduce either the cases of spinal curvature, myopia, or strabismus. The advantage of slanted writing was found primarily in the fact that it was faster and more convenient.
In the system of teaching writing, such methods (or methods) as copying, linear, rhythmic, genetic, and Carster's methods are becoming widespread. Over the years, preference was given to one of them.
Teaching calligraphy using the copying (or stigmatographic) method consisted of tracing letters printed in special notebooks (dots, pale ink) or handwritten by the teacher with a pencil. The method was introduced into schools in the 19th century. and was calculated on the fact that long-term, albeit mechanical, tracing of beautiful writing samples should eventually develop the correct shape of the letters. Advanced methodologists of the late 19th and early 20th centuries. (I. E. Evseev, F. V. Grekov, etc.) criticized this method primarily for the fact that learning by tracing ready-made samples does not lead to conscious mastery of handwriting, but is built on a mechanical exercise that dulls the mind. We also find sharp criticism of this method, as the only one, from the Soviet methodologist V. A. Saglin. He wrote that when circling the letters, students do not understand either their structure or the sequence of writing; they trace slowly and uncertainly.
However, many methodologists (for example, D. A. Pisarevsky, N. I. Bogolyubov) recognized that using the copy method for special purposes in individual work with children at an early stage of education is quite advisable. D. A. Pisarevsky also believed that the skillful use of this method can have a certain effect when correcting the handwriting of third-grade students.
Thus, understanding the harm that the copying method as the only or one of the leading ones can cause to teaching penmanship, all methodologists allowed its limited use for some special purposes.
The linear method also has its origins in the distant past. This method is based on a font approach to learning - precise and always identical distances between the elements of letters, exact proportions of the height and width of the letter and its parts, that is, the letter, and therefore the words, could be written using an auxiliary grid that determines the height writing the letter as a whole and its halves, slope, distance between elements, etc.
The graphic grid began to be used in 1857 in Germany. It quickly spread to other countries. By the end of the 19th century. in the same Germany, it was already rejected on the grounds that the oblique mesh is harmful to vision, deprives children of independence, and hinders hand movements.
Since penmanship in Russia was entrusted to artist teachers, it is quite natural that they were inclined to teach writing the same way they taught drawing - with an auxiliary grid for constructing letters when writing. This method, as the only one, also did not justify itself. The frequent oblique grid did not contribute to the development of writing skills, the formation of the eye, etc.
Most methodologists, both before the revolution and in Soviet times, saw the harmful effects of frequent oblique mesh, recommended its use very limited, and many called for its abandonment: E.V. Guryanov, F.G. Golovanov, E.N. Sokolova. Even in pre-revolutionary times, manuals were published without an oblique grid: only with lines defining the direction of the line and the height of the letters. It was noticed that with an oblique grid, children learned to hold the notebook straight. The straight position of the notebook when writing obliquely led to the reinforcement of incorrect hand movement when writing along the line and incorrect posture while writing.
Some teachers successfully solved the problems of teaching writing to first-graders when working in one-line notebooks (without the top line of the working line).
The genetic method is that letters are learned in order from a graphically simple letter in shape to a graphically more complex one. Based on the composition of similar elements, letters are divided into groups of increasing graphic complexity.
The genetic method has been known for a very long time. I. E. Evseev wrote that back in the 16th century. It was first mentioned by the German artist Durer, who proved that all writing consists of a certain number of main lines. In teaching writing, this method was used by Pestalozzi. During the 19th century. The genetic method was used in teaching writing in European schools. Transferred to the Russian school, it at one time played a very positive role, replacing mechanical exercises from “a” to “izhitsa”. D. A. Pisarevsky believed that the genetic method is most suitable for the initial mastery of writing. When writing letters in alphabetical order or in the order given in the primer, learning begins with very difficult forms. The same opinion was held even earlier by I. E. Evseev and F. V. Grekov. However, all methodologists understood that it was impossible to write letters without understanding them, to teach writing in isolation from learning to read. Therefore, the genetic method was used in our schools after all the children had learned to write letters in the order in which they learned to read, i.e., only to improve writing and practice the shape of letters.
IN methodological developments Recently (N.I. Tkachenko, A.I. Voskresenskaya, etc.) this method was used to practice the shape of letters in the post-letter period. A gradual increase in difficulties occurs not only when studying the shape of letters, but also in the transition from one ruling to another (from a frequent oblique grid to writing in notebooks with a sparse oblique and, finally, to writing along one line), in the transition from element-by-element to letter-by-letter, then to continuous writing.
The tactical (or rhythmic) method is writing under counting, at the same tempo and rhythm for all students.
Some methodologists at one time were very fond of this method, believing that only with this method was it possible to create beautiful handwriting. Subsequently, it turned out that the rhythmic method has its own disadvantages and advantages, and, using it, it is impossible to solve all the difficulties of learning penmanship. However, most methodologists recognize the positive features of the tactical method (with its limited use), since it is convenient for working with the whole class, increases interest in classes, develops confidence and smooth hand movements, and helps establish the desired speed of writing.
But with prolonged and constant use of this method, children get tired faster and their interest in work becomes dull.
Another common method is teaching writing by prescribing special exercises for developing hand movements: fingers, hand, forearm. This method entered the history of calligraphy as the method of the Englishman Carster, who described it at the beginning of the 19th century. When using this method, free, confident and fast movements of the hand are achieved: first writing 19 elements in close-up, then letters connected by special strokes, then words without any auxiliary lines. Such drawings are necessary for mastering the ability to use the direction, space of the sheet and developing freedom and ease of hand movement.
According to many methodologists, Carster's system of exercises was more suitable for adults when developing speed or correcting handwriting than for children, since many of the drawings were complex in execution technique. However, later certain exercises were successfully used to teach children (see recipes by A.I. Voskresenskaya and
N. I. Tkachenko, manuals by V. A. Saglin, N. N. Bogolyubov, etc.).
This chapter examines traditional ways of teaching penmanship. As we see, in the practice of broad training, none of the considered methods has proven itself as the only one. The best results have always been achieved through a reasonable combination of these methods at certain stages of learning to write.

GOALS, OBJECTIVES AND PRINCIPLES OF TEACHING CLEANWRITING
The subject of penmanship begins at the end of grade I after the end of the literacy period and continues in subsequent grades.
However, it would be wrong to understand that the tasks of teaching calligraphy are put forward only from this period. Work on penmanship begins from the first days of a child’s admission to first grade, simultaneously with learning to write.
The goals and objectives of the subject of penmanship are closely related to the formation of writing skills as a whole.
The ability to use written communication is extremely important for every person. However, writing can be a genuine means of communication if it is readable, clear and, if possible, beautiful. This shows both the culture of the writer himself and respect for the one who will read what is written.
In modern society, in the era of scientific and technological progress and the rapid flow of information, a person also has to do a lot of education and self-education, keep notes of lectures, messages, notes, theses, the share of scientific and business writing also increases: correspondence, keeping minutes, documents, writing reports, preparation of articles and descriptions of experiments, observations, research, etc. In all these and many other cases, there is a need not only for legible, but also fast writing.
Hence, the goal of practicing penmanship, or calligraphy, is to form graphically correct, clear and fairly quick writing.
In other words, in penmanship lessons, through proper selection and special exercises, it is necessary to develop in students such skills that, when switching to rapid writing, would help maintain the clarity of handwriting and ensure sufficient speed in completing written work at the secondary level.
Handwriting classes should help develop a full-fledged writing skill, which is what primary school teachers are guided to do by documents on the reform of secondary and vocational schools. It is impossible to develop clear, beautiful and rapid writing in students in a short period of time. This will take a number of years, since writing skills develop slowly.
Achieving this goal depends on solving many problems that confront the teacher from the first lessons of teaching writing.
First, you need to become familiar with the rules for planting and using tools, orientation on the pages of copybooks, notebooks, initial familiarization with the outline of letters, letter combinations, writing syllables, words, sentences.
Then - consolidation and improvement of these skills in penmanship lessons. The tasks of learning to reproduce letter shapes, maintaining the same slope throughout the entire page, rationally connecting letters in words, and correct placement of words on a line are brought to the fore.
With a change in ruling, it becomes important to maintain the same height of letters in words on the entire line, the proportions of lowercase and capital letters.
In parallel, at each stage, the tasks of teaching coherent (continuous), rhythmic and rapid writing are solved.
In penmanship lessons, the tasks of improving the writing of letters belonging to a certain group, preventing and correcting errors common to this group when writing them are put forward.
Later, when cases of distortion of letters arise due to an increase in the speed of writing and some letters begin to resemble one another (n like i, m like sh, etc.), the task arises of preventing such distortions by working out the shape of letters in faster writing.
When working on the height of letters in grades I and II, where their height is determined by the line, the teacher makes sure that the lowercase letters are located exactly between the top and bottom lines of the working line. In addition, he makes sure that the capital letters do not reach the bottom line of the previous line, so that the loops and other elements extending down the line are the same size. When children switch to writing along one line, the task arises of teaching them to independently adjust the height of letters in words and sentences along the entire line and page.
In addition to the general tasks of working with the whole class, the teacher sets himself tasks to correct certain writing deficiencies of individual students.
The formation of writing skills as one of the most complex skills of human activity is based on certain learning principles.
The principles of teaching penmanship include both general didactic and principles arising from the specifics of the formation of graphic writing skills. Such general didactic principles as consciousness in learning, accessibility, a gradual transition from simple to more complex, repetition, clarity, taking into account the age and individual characteristics of children, find their specific embodiment in specific work on penmanship. Thus, the principle of clarity, which is especially important in teaching penmanship, is ensured by the teacher demonstrating the writing process on the board and in students’ notebooks, using copybooks, tables and other aids. It is impossible to teach penmanship by giving only oral instructions, since the way of imitating the teacher's handwriting and copying examples of good writing is one of the main ways to develop clear handwriting.
It is very important that teaching graphic writing skills be deliberate. This means that the skills, techniques, and habits that a teacher develops while teaching students to write must be explained to students and understandable to them from the very beginning of their presentation. So, students should know how, in what order this or that letter is written, how it is connected to other letters; know why we write with a slant and how the slant is obtained when writing, what the height of the letters should be, how to hold a pen, how to sit when writing, etc.
Some knowledge about the writing process should become rules for students. For example, students should know hygiene rules (rules for seating, positioning and advancing a notebook when writing, position of a pen when writing), as well as rules related to mastering writing skills. The rules are introduced gradually, starting from the alphabetic period, as the material is studied. The first rules are hygiene rules and rules about tilting the letter to the right. Then a rule is introduced about the distance between letters and elements of letters, between words. In penmanship lessons in grades I and II, these rules are repeated. Children should be able to tell the rule in detail and show what it says.
For example, a student explains the rule “You need to write with a slant”: “To write correctly with a slant, you must always have the notebook lying at an angle when writing, then we write the main element directly towards ourselves, and the result is a letter slanted to the right.” (The position of the notebook is demonstrated.)
The conscious acquisition of graphic writing skills is also facilitated by children’s ability to notice and correct their own and others’ shortcomings.
To automate the writing skill, adherence to the principle of repetition, which is carried out mainly in exercises, is of great importance.
Every skill is consolidated and improved, gaining speed and accuracy during the exercise. Exercise is not just a mechanical repetition of the necessary movements and their sequence. The exercise should be such a repetition, repeated playback, in which the execution is improved.
Exercise, i.e. repeated performance, is the oldest technique for acquiring a skill. But if an exercise turns into simply repeated performance, without analysis of what was performed, without comparison with a model, without correcting errors, then it becomes mechanical and ineffective. Therefore, exercises should be conscious, feasible, varied and effective. In order for the exercises to have all these qualities, different teaching techniques are used in penmanship.
Repetition is especially important in the first stages of learning to write, since during breaks in learning (illness, vacations) children quite often forget the rules for writing, the shapes of individual letters, etc.
Teaching graphic writing skills must be carried out taking into account the characteristics of children: the development of perception, speed of movement, anatomical apparatus of movements (hands) and neuromuscular control of movements (coordination of movements) from the central nervous system.
For children 6 years old, the writing process is very difficult due to the slowness and lack of firmness of hand movements during the writing process. The developmental characteristics of the child’s body are taken into account when dosing the number of written exercises and the speed of their completion.
At the same time, it is important that education somewhat advances the development of children and contributes to their further formation. This provides for the principle of a gradual increase in difficulties, the transition from simple to complex.
Thus, children 6 years old can perform, without lifting their hands, first the elements of movement that make up letters, then letters, then letter combinations, where the connections are made with natural rhythmic movements (such as ish, li, ate, etc.). There is no need to require children of this age to continuously connect each of the letters, especially those that are connected to subsequent oval and semi-oval letters, since making these connections is difficult for children of this age. These compounds are introduced later and gradually.
Starting from the second grade, children learn continuous connections with oval letters, learn to write a syllable of 2-3 letters with them, etc.
The transition from simple to complex also occurs in the process of working on the shape of letters in penmanship lessons. The first group of letters includes graphically simpler letters, the subsequent ones - more complex in their outline. This organization of work on letter forms - in groups (based on the similarity of spelling), in order of increasing graphic difficulties - is called the genetic principle in calligraphy. Thus, the transition from simple to more complex in a specific subject is expressed as a special genetic principle in the formation of the skill of graphically correct and clear writing.
When teaching children penmanship, the teacher must rely on the principle of taking into account the individual characteristics of children: know well the children’s writing abilities, take into account the children’s visual characteristics (nearsighted, farsighted), notice deviations in motor skills (finger trembling, hand twitching while writing, etc.). The teacher must see how the student sits, how he holds the pen, places the notebook when writing, how he reproduces the shape of the letter, in what sequence, how he connects the letters, whether he writes slowly or very quickly, etc.
Such knowledge of the students’ capabilities allows the teacher to properly organize penmanship work, select individual tasks for students, and give specific advice to parents.
The specificity of teaching calligraphy, due to the sensorimotor nature of the writing skill and its serving role (for Russian language lessons, mathematics, etc.), requires adherence to specific principles that are characteristic specifically for the formation of graphic skills.
Thus, in the first stages of learning to read and write, the principle of joint learning of reading and writing is important. Introduced by K.D. Ushinsky, this principle has proven itself in teaching practice for more than a hundred years and is being successfully implemented at the present time.
Any letter must be literate, readable, and fast enough to provide the ability to solve problems in subjects such as Russian, mathematics, etc.
However, one cannot fail to take into account that work on calligraphy is mainly aimed at the formation of a motor skill, which in its development is subject to the laws of formation and development of movements (convenience for hand movement, adjustment of visual and motor sensations and perceptions, speed of movements, etc.). Therefore, relying on the patterns of formation of motor writing skills is very important in the classroom, so that the writing process itself is convenient for the writer and contributes to mastering the most accurate and rapid movements of all parts of the hand.
The formation of calligraphic writing skills is of great pedagogical and social educational importance. By teaching schoolchildren to write neatly and clearly, taking care of the stability of their handwriting, the teacher instills in them accuracy, hard work, a conscientious and diligent attitude towards performing any work, not only written work, a respectful attitude towards people, towards their work, and finally, contributes to their aesthetic education .
The formation of individual handwriting does not end in elementary school; this process continues in high school.

PSYCHOPHYSIOLOGICAL FEATURES OF FORMATION OF GRAPHIC WRITING SKILLS
In order to properly teach students penmanship, you need to know how students develop graphic writing skills, how handwriting develops, and what are the best conditions for developing these skills.
They are developed through long-term exercise. Skills, for example, include reading, computing skills, drawing, painting, speaking, knitting, etc.
Graphic writing skills are a human sensorimotor skill. But, unlike most sensorimotor skills, which are included either in work activities (sewing, sawing skills, working with some kind of tool) or in sports activities (skating, dancing, playing ball, etc.), graphic writing skills are associated with human learning activities and serve the process of writing. This is the specificity and complexity of their formation. They are not formed in isolation, but together with reading, spelling, and the development of written speech. At the highest level of the formed writing process, the orthographic and calligraphic sides are not realized or are realized very little. A person's main focus is on how to express thoughts in words. This does not mean that at the highest level of written language it is impossible to follow the movement of the hand during the writing process. Switching attention to the movement of the hand during the writing process is quite possible (even if a person has already developed handwriting), but usually there is no need to monitor the movement of the hand during the writing process. The process of writing words itself is carried out easily and quickly, like walking by a physically healthy person.
Handwriting is a very stable individual formation. It is known that handwriting can be used to identify a person.
This stability of a person’s handwriting from the point of view of physiology is explained as the development of stereotypical conditioned reflex connections, dynamic stereotypes (according to I.P. Pavlov).
The writing process is very complex and covers various areas of human mental activity. Writing both from memory and from dictation is associated with various anatomical and physiological structures of the brain. As a number of works have shown (R. E. Levina, Zh. I. Shnf, S. M. Blinkova, A. R. Luria, etc.), disorders of certain areas of the cerebral cortex lead to various disorders of writing and written speech. Studying the nature of these disorders made it possible to consider different areas of the cerebral cortex in connection with different types of written speech. The temporal areas of the left hemisphere of the brain are associated with auditory analysis in the process of writing: their damage most causes a disruption in the writing process carried out by ear, but has little effect on copying. The posterior central areas of the left hemisphere, which synthesize kinesthetic sensations, are also associated with writing processes - namely, the control of movements through the articulatory systems of speech. The occipito-parietal region is associated with the visual
organization of the writing process. Its defeat leads to spatial disturbances in the writing process. Compliance with the alternation and sequence of the required repetition of letters is associated with the premboral region of the cortex and the preservation of the motor image of the word. The left frontal lobes - the motor center of speech - are most associated with the preservation of the intent when writing. Their defeat causes the impossibility of consistent writing.
Thus, the writing process is associated with the activity of all areas of the cerebral cortex, although their role in different types of writing is not the same.
By school age, not all areas of the cerebral cortex are morphologically and functionally developed in a child, especially the frontal lobes of the cortex.
Building a skill requires that the learner be prepared to learn that skill. Moreover, any skill has its own specific areas, which must be in a state of readiness at the time the skill is formed. Sometimes it can only be formed on the basis of another skill that has already been significantly developed.
The development of finger and hand movements is very important for mastering writing skills. These movements develop in the child gradually throughout the preschool period. If grasping objects - a ball, a cube - is formed in a child by about 15 months, then holding a pencil in the hand or a spoon when eating requires more complex coordination. Thus, T. S. Komarova writes, “that although the movements of a child’s hand are already significantly developed by the age of three, children, as a rule, do not yet master instrumental actions with a pencil and a brush.” If these skills are not practiced, children even at six years old do not master them: they hold a pencil with all their fingers and squeeze it tightly. The development of fingers and hands is achieved through properly organized drawing, modeling, and design, which in the future will greatly help children in mastering writing skills.
E. N. Sokolova studied finger movements in children aged 4-7 years in connection with studying the possibility of preparing for the formation of writing skills. It was found that it is easier for children of this age to flex and extend the large and index finger and more difficult - the rotational movements of these fingers. At the same time, finger movements, especially rotational ones, in most cases (even in children 6-7 years old) are accompanied by movements of the lips and tongue. This fact suggests that the organization of movements at the highest level of cortical regulation is apparently not yet sufficiently differentiated: the movements of the fingers and the speech-motor apparatus are inextricably linked.
The development of movements of the fingers is likely to be delayed even with intense exercise, since by the time the child enters school the ossification of the fingers has not yet been completed.

In the early and preschool age There is also an accumulation of movement experience, the development of motor and visual control, which is so characterized by E. V. Guryanov. In pre-preschool age, the first movements with a pencil are observed based on motor impulses: large sweeping movements, there is still no attempt at visual regulation of movements. At preschool age, visual, although not perfect enough, control over the movement of a pencil in a drawing appears.
Already at preschool age, during the formation of movements and motor skills, the role of imitation and the role of verbal explanation are very large (data from A.V. Zaporozhets). If these techniques are insufficient, children can, when mastering movements, be guided by the muscular sensations obtained through the guidance of their hands by adults (I. S. Komarova).
According to E. N. Sokolova, in children 4-5 years old, images of a straight line or an oval are accompanied by a noticeable trembling of the fingers, so that as a result, the straight lines turn out to be curved, the oval - zigzag and not always closed:...
By the age of 6, hand movements when writing letters and their elements are more confident, however, residual tremor during the transition from writing a straight line to a rounded line is still quite possible in many children.
Research by D. B. Elkonin, L. F. Tkacheva, L. V. Zhurova and others showed that by the age of 6 a child’s phonemic hearing is sufficiently developed and ready for auditory analysis and synthesis; The articulatory system of most children is also quite prepared to pronounce speech sounds, which is very important for starting to learn not only oral speech, but also writing.
The formation of graphic writing skills begins long before the child enters school. In pre-preschool age (up to approximately 3 years), children pick up a pencil or pen and draw straight lines or closed scribbles on paper, without yet controlling or directing their hand with their vision.
Later, visual control begins to turn on, the child draws something (a house, the sun, a tree, etc.), writes individual block letters with a pencil. Modeling, designing, paper crafts, etc. develop the child’s hand, fingers and eyes. These interesting activities for children also prepare the child’s hand and eye for the writing process - they develop small muscles of the hand, teach them to see the form and reproduce it.
Thus, by the time children enter school, the child’s eye and hand are to some extent ready for learning to write. However, the movements made during the writing process cannot be reproduced either in drawing or in modeling (the activities closest to writing). The process of writing involves other finger movements; visual perception is also subordinated to other goals than in visual activity.
In practice, sometimes there is an undesirable transfer of some techniques learned in the preschool period when drawing. For example, techniques for holding a pencil are transferred to the position of the pen in the hand when writing, but they are not exactly the same. The habit of drawing straight lines (house, tree, fence, etc.) leads some children to the fact that the requirement to write “on themselves” when the paper is tilted leads to straight writing; the stick is written perpendicular to the line line in any position of the paper. Of course, not all children are influenced by past experiences in the same way. However, special techniques are required to overcome this habit. What is most needed is exercise in the writing itself.
At the beginning of teaching children to write from the age of six, in the development of movements, in increasing their speed, in controlling movements, much of what was even more early age. Thus, the speed of writing during the first year of training does not increase as quickly as in 7-year-old children, and their initial writing speed is lower than in 7-year-old children, especially since the small muscles of the hand are even less developed than the larger muscles.
In the development of writing skills in students, some changes occur every day as they practice. It cannot be said that the initial period ends when students write the last letter in the copybooks: with the end of the alphabetic period, neither fluency nor confidence in writing is acquired.
During the learning process, children become familiar with both spelling techniques and graphic writing skills.
Graphic writing skills are quite complex and consist of various techniques: the techniques necessary for writing and the techniques of writing.
The writing process is carried out using a writing instrument (pen, pencil, chalk), which a person moves accordingly with his hand, making the necessary movements under the control of vision and motor control of the writing hand. Depending on what instrument a person uses (fountain pen, ballpoint pen, pencil, chalk), he performs various movements and techniques. Let us present the techniques in the form of such a diagram.

Techniques required for writing:
1. Mastery of writing tools.
2. Maintaining the correct position of the notebook and moving it forward while writing.
3. Compliance correct posture, landing when writing.
4. Movement of the hand along the line while writing.

Writing techniques:
1. The ability to compare a sample with the result of the letter.
2. Techniques for translating sound into written letters and printed letters into written letters.
3. Techniques for writing letters (beginning, where to point the pen, rotation, connections).
4. Techniques for connecting letters (without breaking, with breaking, above, below, etc.).
5. Technique for matching letters by height - maintaining the same height of letters on the line.
6. Writing letters between the lines of the line and on the line.
7. Start of the letter. Filling the line.
8. Techniques for correct slanted writing.
Thus, from the very beginning of the formation of writing skills, students are faced with a number of tasks in mastering different techniques. In the first few days, there is usually a familiarization with these techniques and initial mastery of how to hold a pen, sit, and position the notebook when writing. These techniques, which initially occupy the student’s entire attention, will still be practiced over the course of 2-3 years.
Due to the fact that the formation of writing skills requires compliance with many conditions and mastery of a number of techniques, when initially mastering graphic skills, it is difficult to distribute the student’s attention and keep several tasks in mind at the same time. When starting to write, the student forgets that his focus should be on the correct position of the notebook, and that the pen should not be squeezed or pressed with all his might. He is entirely focused on one task - to write a letter or a word, but even now it is difficult for him to keep in mind all the techniques. He points the pen towards himself, trying to write straight lines evenly, forgets about the inclination of this line, misses the moment when he needs to make a turn, forgets about the pattern, etc.
This deficiency in skill development cannot be avoided. Outside of this skill, you cannot strengthen techniques for holding a pen, or positioning a notebook, or sitting when writing. This would take a lot of time and at the beginning of the activity would not have been worked out one way or another, since the isolated development of these techniques would not have resulted in coordination. A large number of graphic requirements cannot be eliminated - compliance with the slope, shape, size, pressure force, etc.
Difficulties in distributing attention when writing continue for quite a considerable period, until individual techniques become quite easy to implement. This is achieved through constant exercise. The student's attention is focused on what is this moment is executed and does not anticipate the next movement.
So, for the student from the very beginning, the main task is the graphic task - to write one line at an equal distance from the others, to write the letter a or y, etc. But distribution of attention is always required - to write lines evenly, without bending the line, with the same slope, on equal distance, as shown. At the same time, the transition to writing letters, syllables, words and sentences each time presents an increasing number of graphic requirements: some of them are old, little learned, others are new, which still need to be learned.
With the advent of requirements for spelling and competent writing - writing from dictation, copying from the board - control over the graphic side of writing is weakened. If children already know how to read, then they easily carry out sound-letter analysis of words, and the spelling of the words given to them does not cause difficulties; their attention, without being distracted, is focused on graphic tasks, and they quickly and easily master the correct writing techniques. On the contrary, a student who experiences difficulty in sound-letter analysis of a word during dictation is in a hurry and completes the task from the very beginning carelessly, somehow. He doesn't have time to improve the graphic image.
The first stage of mastering a skill is characterized by a very large expenditure of energy, inadequate to the expenditure of effort, and wasteful involvement of unnecessary muscle movements in the execution. The child squeezes the pen very tightly in his hand and presses it hard when writing with his index finger. The muscles of the face and the whole body are tense.
The movement of the hand during the writing process is at first very slow, although the speed of writing in primary school age is much greater than in preschool age. Thus, according to T. S. Komarova (when shading with a pencil) and E. N. Sokolova (when writing elements of letters and individual letters with a ballpoint pen), in preschool children from 4 to 6 years old there is no increase in the speed of movements even during exercises in for several months. At a later age, writing exercises have an effect on increasing writing speed, but its increase is more significant in children 7-8 years old than in children 6-7 years old. This must be taken into account when teaching children to write starting from the age of 6.
At the beginning of learning to write, children’s movements are very fractional,
one effort is designed for a short piece of writing. Stopping the movement is possible in any part of the letter, since there is no rhythm in the movement yet. But already in the first year of study, with a gradual increase in the portion of continuous writing to 2-3 letters like shu, sew, most students can fulfill this requirement without difficulty. Fragmentation is associated with the great effort that the student makes while writing, with the difficulty of performing movements, with the lack of coordination of all the necessary parts of the hand while writing along the line, with the lack of anticipation of the subsequent movement.
During the first period of skill formation, both visual and motor control of movements are very imperfect. The leading one in this case is visual control. The child constantly monitors how he moves his hand when writing, how he places the letters apart from each other, and whether he writes them on the line; however, the shape of the letters is far from the sample, the letters are spaced unevenly from each other, and the slope is disrupted.
The difficulty of comparing a sample with one’s own performance is explained by a number of reasons: a) when a student follows the movement of the teacher’s hand, he perceives this movement as insufficiently differentiated, as a very complex image, he does not immediately perceive all the features of the movement of the hand when writing; b) when a student sees a discrepancy between the model and the results of his performance, he cannot always, having written again, correct his mistake, perform better, since he does not have visual-motor experience. Usually such experience is achieved with the direct assistance of a teacher. The teacher takes the student's hand in his own and gives his hand the desired direction, while simultaneously explaining how to write. This is how the relationship between visual image and movement is achieved.
The initial period was also characterized by the fragility of the established techniques. This affects the complexity of the task. Thus, the transition to a new task, for example, to the continuous writing of a syllable, causes a violation of the writing of the letter shape (which was written more or less correctly in isolation), a violation of the inclination of the elements, which was not observed when writing the letter in isolation, etc. When moving to the writing of words, sentences Graphic errors appear again in the children's writing, which seemed to have been eliminated in previous lessons.
The task of writing letters and connecting them is solved anew each time and somewhat differently than the previous time. This is noticeable when looking at the results of students’ writing: there are fluctuations in the slope, different widths of letters, uneven spacing of letters from each other, discrepancies in proportions, etc. The same letter in the same sentence turns out to be executed differently.
Thus, when studying in the first grade, children have not yet acquired either fluency or confidence in writing. Further
Qualitative changes occur in writing: the image of a letter and letter combinations is reproduced more and more accurately, due to the fact that connections are established between visual and muscular control of movement.
The nature of the hand movements during the writing process changes in the following direction: a) the hand gets used to making movements that are the most convenient and economical: downwards, towards oneself - the main movement when writing, and a connecting movement with a large slope when writing upwards, before the start of writing the next main element;
b) The movements are enlarged - with one impulse the continuous writing of several letters is completed (usually 3-4); c) due to these features of movements, writing becomes more rhythmic and smooth. In general, the process of consolidation of movements and their rhythmization occurs very slowly, over many years.
Gradually, the same type of movements when writing the same letters is consolidated, which is reflected in the stereotyping of the same letters when writing - handwriting begins to develop. However, the stereotypical movements are dynamic. Already by the end of the first year of study, it can be noted for the same student that a certain letter, when written again in the text, is similar to the same letter that was previously written (the same rounding, shape of rotation, inclination of the element, etc.). But in the second grade, when greater freedom and confidence of movement is acquired and the shape of the letters is improved, they will become somewhat different. There will be even greater similarities between the same letters in the letter of the same student. Every year the movements become more and more fixed and stereotypical. Therefore, changing and correcting the handwriting of a fourth-grade student is an extremely difficult task (T. N. Borkova, N. T. Orlova), although the students’ handwriting is far from developed and will continue to change. This is apparently explained by the consolidation of the same type of movements when writing letters at a given writing speed and the consolidation of other writing techniques.
A gradual increase in the speed of writing, the acquisition of rhythm of movements during the writing process, the desire of the hand to make the most economical movements lead to more coherent, continuous writing, in which the shape of the letters changes, and its stereotype also changes. The change in the shape of letters in the process of fluent writing is also influenced by the search for an individual original writing style. This desire, often imitating the handwriting of adults, is already observed among students in grades V-VI, when the writing process, even if it has not yet reached complete automation, is nevertheless accomplished without difficulty.
D. N. Bogoyavlensky quite correctly raises the question of the mechanism of automation (in particular, the automation of spelling skills): “... firstly, a gradual decrease in the role of awareness of one’s actions; secondly, the reduction of mental operations through substantiating and then operational judgments; thirdly, the unification and generalization of private actions into actions that are larger in scale and, in connection with this, expanding the boundaries of transfer; fourthly, improving the methods of performing actions, selecting the most rational ways to solve spelling problems and, ultimately, automating actions...”1 Apparently, there is a lot in common in the automation of other skills, in particular writing skills, just transfer these steps it is necessary in the area of ​​the motor sphere.
1 Bogoyavlensky D. N. Psychology of spelling acquisition. - M.: Education, 1966. - P. 100.
The desire to make the most convenient, economical movement when writing quickly gradually leads to deformation of the letter shape and to the likening of one letter to another as a result of the fact that different letters are written by students with the same movement. For example, n, p, and, k are written exactly the same. The deformation of letters begins at the time when writing becomes fast. Therefore, in the elementary grades, the teacher must work more on reinforcing the correct letter forms.
With the combination of movements into larger ones, with the weakening of visual control over movements due to the fact that the movements are carried out easily and the spelling composition of the word becomes more and more familiar, the speed of writing increases. Numerous studies of writing speed report rapid gains in speed in the early years of learning and slower gains in subsequent years. The formation of handwriting continues after the teaching of calligraphy ends (after IV grade). At this time, the formation of handwriting depends on the requirements for speed and quality of writing, which are imposed on students by different teachers, and on the students’ own desire to write better. The quality of handwriting is known to depend on writing speed, although this dependence is relative. Not everyone experiences quality deterioration as speed increases.
By grades VIII-X, the writing speed of students approaches the writing speed of adults (90-100 letters per minute). However, in adults, very fast writing reaches a higher speed than in schoolchildren in grades VIII-X, but usually there is also a greater deformation of the shape of the letters. With age, it is possible to improve the quality of handwriting, transforming it into calligraphic writing, which is associated with the special abilities of students.
Thus, we have given some insight into the psychophysiological features of the development of calligraphic writing skills, which will help the teacher understand how the skill is formed and what requirements can be placed on students when learning to write at one or another age.

HYGIENIC CONDITIONS OF WRITING
Success in teaching penmanship is largely determined by the creation of hygienic conditions: the correct selection and arrangement of school furniture, the suitability of the desk (table) for the student’s height, the convenience of its (his) design for writing, the proper level of illumination of workplaces, the class as a whole, etc.
The fulfillment of the most important hygienic requirements in the writing process depends on the creation of appropriate conditions: maintaining the correct posture, the position of the pen in the hand, placing the notebook on the table area and its advancement during writing, which ultimately helps to prevent violations of the posture and vision of children, increase efficiency, and form clear , quick letter.
The hygienic requirements for school furniture and relating mainly to its size, compliance with the height and proportions of the child’s body, placement in the classroom, etc., are set out in detail in manuals and guidelines on school hygiene.
It is important not only to provide workplace, corresponding to the student’s height, but also to teach him to maintain the least tiring posture during schoolwork - sit deeply on a chair, hold his body and head straight, his legs should be bent at the hip and knee joints, his feet should rest on the floor, his forearms should rest freely on the table.
The dimensions and ratios of the main parts of the student table and chair (desk) are established on the basis of special anthropometric studies of schoolchildren.
School furniture must have the correct ratio of the main elements: table top, seat and back of the chair (bench).
It is necessary to instill correct posture in schoolchildren from the first days of attending school, and first of all, measures should be taken to eliminate the deficiencies that already exist in children’s posture. The family rarely creates the conditions necessary for the student to have the correct posture when writing and to overcome previously acquired habits.
Thus, when children enter school, more than half of them, according to many observations, do not know how to sit correctly. Those who knew how to type (write) bent low over the notebook and kept their heads tilted. Some turned sideways to the desk, tucking their legs under them and thus shifting the center of gravity of the body far forward. The paper often moved from one place to another: either it moved completely to the bottom of the desk, as a result of which the hands hung down from the desk, or it was pulled out far, forcing the entire body to rest on the desk.
In first grade, the rules of sitting when writing must be repeatedly repeated with children in all lessons. For clarity, teacher
demonstrates the table “Sit correctly when writing.” After the schoolchildren review the table, the teacher asks how the student (student) holds his head, hands, how he leans on the back of the desk (chair), where his legs are, draws attention to the fact that the seat of the chair should extend beyond the edge of the table.
The chair is moved under the table so that, when leaning on the back, a palm or fist is placed between the chest and the table.
If the desk and chair are connected motionlessly, this provides a more stable seating position and distance from the plane of the table to the eyes.
Next, the teacher invites the student to sit at a desk (table) as shown on the table, explains once again how to hold his head, shoulders, arms, etc., and emphasizes that you should not lean your chest on the edge of the desk (table) and that the distance from the eyes to the book or notebook should be approximately 30 cm.
The hands lie freely on the table (desk): the right hand and the left hand rest on the notebook. Both legs rest with their entire feet on the floor.
When writing, the student leans on the back of the desk (chair) with his lower back; when explaining to the teacher, he sits more freely, leaning on the back of the desk (chair) not only with the sacro-lumbar part of the back, but also with the subscapular part of the back. After explaining and demonstrating the correct sitting position, the teacher asks the students of the whole class to sit correctly and, going around the class, corrects their posture if necessary.
The tables “Sit correctly when writing”, “Correct position of notebooks, pens” should be hung in the classroom so that schoolchildren always have them before their eyes.
To form a correct and stable posture during writing lessons, it is very important to teach children to prepare a workplace, correctly place a notebook and other educational supplies, and
also teach how to hold a pen and notebook correctly. It is necessary to provide conditions for viewing the blackboard and didactic teaching materials.
The light should come from the left for most students in the class who write with their right hand, so that the shadow of the hand does not interfere with the writing process.
Compliance with hygienic conditions is of particular importance when teaching six-year-old students who have imperfect nervous regulation of movements, poorly developed small muscles of the hand, ossification of the bones of the wrist and phalanges of the fingers is not complete, and low endurance to static loads (M. M. Koltsova, 1973, 1977; M. M. Bezrukikh, 1978; N. K. Barsukova, 1984, etc.).
Correct determination of the duration of continuous writing is important for compliance with hygienic requirements. Thus, the duration of continuous writing should not exceed: in grade I - 5 minutes, in grade II - 8 minutes, in grade III - 12 minutes, in grade IV - 15 minutes. With a greater volume and duration of written work, schoolchildren develop fatigue under the influence of the complex influence of direct mental work and static load. It is expressed in a certain excitement, manifested in motor restlessness, in relatively frequent changes in body position.
It is important to take this into account when planning lessons, providing for a rational alternation of oral and written types of work. When performing exercises of a larger volume (due to necessity), children should be given a short rest and exercises should be introduced for the eyes (cover, look into the distance, to the sides, etc.).
Such a short rest is also important for correcting the students’ posture. In the course of special studies, in particular by V. A. Arslanov, it was revealed that they lose their working position every 2-7 minutes after a requirement is placed on them. Naturally, one-time physical education minutes and appeals to children about landing do not have a tangible pedagogical impact.
When working with primary schoolchildren, it is necessary to conduct 2-3 physical education sessions, as well as special preparatory exercises for the development of the fingers, hand, and forearm.
Students' compliance with hygiene requirements during the writing process is important throughout the entire period of schooling.

TOOLS AND MATERIALS FOR WRITING

For penmanship classes, it is advisable to have a chalkboard with appropriate lines, tables “Sit correctly when writing,” posters of handwritten font (alphabet), an album of samples of writing individual letters, copybooks, crayons, etc.

Ball pen
Modern teaching of calligraphic writing skills should be at the level of technological progress. Nowadays the most common writing instrument is a ballpoint pen.
Students must learn to write with a school ballpoint pen. It is convenient for children: thin, quite light. It would be better if all children had the same hands. It is unacceptable for schoolchildren to use expensive, often inconvenient handles or just rods.
Compared to a fountain pen, a ballpoint pen, when writing, takes a slightly different position in relation to the plane of the sheet: the angle of inclination when writing with a ballpoint pen is 50-55°, when writing with a fountain pen - 35-45°.
The position of the pen in the hand when writing. The pen is held by three fingers: thumb, index and middle. It is located between the thumb and middle finger, and the index finger holds it on top. Children should not hold the handle tightly. The index finger should not bend. The fingers are slightly extended. The distance from the tip of the index finger to the ball is approximately 1.5-2 cm (as convenient). The teacher checks how freely the children hold the pen in their hand, as they may develop the incorrect habit of holding a pen with four fingers in a fist. Children place their hands on their elbows on the desk and show how to hold a pen. The index finger rises lightly several times. The teacher reminds that there is no need to squeeze the pen, you just need to hold it between the large
and middle fingers. When writing, you need to lightly press the pen with your index finger. When it comes into contact with paper, it leaves a noticeable mark.
The pen refill paste should be blue or purple. Red paste is used only by the teacher. Writing in red ink is a signal of a notice, evaluation, or error.
Students do not take their pens apart during the lesson. After recording, place it in a pencil case or in a special place on the desk. The teacher may have a few spare pens and refills on his desk.

Notebook
When teaching writing, the teacher introduces students to the rules for making notes in notebooks and signing notebooks.
To teach writing at the end of the 1st and 2nd grades, notebooks were lined in two lines. The height of a lowercase letter is 4 mm, a capital letter is 8 mm.
From the end of grade II, in grades III and IV, a single-line notebook with a distance between lines of 8 mm is recommended. The height of lowercase letters is approximately 3 mm, capital letters - 6 mm. The numbers are all written the height of the cell in its right half, the width of the number is approximately 2 times less than its height.
Handwriting exercises are performed by students of grades I and II in special notebooks, and in workbooks on the Russian language by students of grades III-IV.
The basic uniform requirements for maintaining notebooks are formulated in Instruction Letter No. 364-M dated 09/01/80 “On uniform requirements for students’ oral and written speech, for conducting written work and checking notebooks”:
1. Write in notebooks in neat, legible handwriting.
2. Make uniform inscriptions on the cover of the notebook: indicate what the notebook is intended for (for work on the Russian language, mathematics...), class, number and name of the school, last name and first name of the student.
Notebooks for students in grades I and II (in the first half of the year) are signed by the teacher.
3. Maintain margins on the outside of the page.
4. In grade I, the date of work in writing and mathematics is not written. In grades II-IV, the execution time is indicated: the number is in Arabic numerals, and the name of the month is in words.
5. In the notebook it is necessary to indicate the number of the exercise, task, and indicate where the work is being done (classroom or homework).
6. When starting to write the text of an exercise or a paragraph, children must follow the red line.
7. Do not skip a line between the date and the title, the name of the type of work and the title, as well as between the title and the text in Russian language notebooks. In math notebooks, in all these cases, skip only 2 cells.
Between the final line of the text of one written work and the date or title (name of the type) of the next work in notebooks on the Russian language, skip 2 lines, and in notebooks on mathematics - 4 cells (to separate one work from another and to grade the work).
8. The student must correct mistakes as follows: cross out an incorrectly written letter or punctuation mark with an oblique line; part of a word or sentence - a thin horizontal line; Instead of the crossed out, write the necessary letters, words, sentences; Do not put incorrect entries in parentheses.
9. Carefully make underlines with a pencil, and if necessary, use a ruler.
Students' notebooks, in which class and homework in the Russian language and mathematics are completed, are checked by the teacher after each lesson for all students. Written works in the 1st grade and the 1st half of the 2nd grade are not assessed according to point system, and various means of encouragement are used.

Letter on chalkboard
I The chalkboard should be painted in a dark (dark green, black) color for visual contrast. It is better if the board is mounted on the wall and can rise up and open left and right. Part of the board should be lined, this is especially important in grades I and II. The layout on the board must correspond to the proportions of the first line in the notebooks. On one part of the board, lines are drawn for writing in the Russian language and calligraphy, on the other part - for mathematics:
The date is written daily in the middle of the board. To ensure that the date is always written in one place, neatly, evenly, and the letters do not slide down, there must be a permanent place for writing the date on the board, marked with a line.
The teacher writes on the blackboard with white chalk. It should be soft so as not to scratch the surface of the board. Colored crayons are used to highlight spelling, underline and other symbols.
The teacher should always write on the board in such a way that students can see examples of correct writing: shape and style
letters, connections, inclination must meet the requirements for children's writing and are given in copybooks. Accuracy and correct note-taking must be observed in lessons in all subjects, when writing announcements, homework and other notes.
Quite early, in order to teach spelling and mathematics, the teacher calls the children to write on the board. At the same time, the teacher should know that the movements of the hand in the process of writing on the board do not correspond to the movements of the hand in the process of writing in the notebook. The difference is this:
1. When writing letters in a notebook, small muscles of the fingers and hand are actively involved, and also to move along the line - rotation of the hand (pronation) and forearm. The center of movement is the elbow joint.
When writing on a board, the shape of the letters is written out mainly by movements of the hand and forearm. Movement along the line is carried out by the shoulder with the center of movement in the shoulder joint.
2. The tilt when writing in a notebook is carried out only due to the inclined position of the notebook, but the main element of the movement is written vertically towards itself. The result of this writing is slanted writing.
When writing on a board, since it is not tilted in relation to the writer, the main element in the letters is actually written by tilting it to the right. The result of writing in a notebook and on a board, both in the shape of the letters and in the inclination, should be the same.
If a student, when writing in a notebook, only needs to move his gaze from the sample to the notebook, then in order to evaluate his writing on the board, the teacher must move some distance away to see everything written, since at close range all the mistakes and merits of the letter cannot be assessed.
The teacher must understand this difference in the process of writing on the board and in a notebook and take into account that a student called to the board, who writes well in a notebook with the correct slant, will first write on the board without an inclination, since he transfers the movements acquired in the process of small writing to the letter on the board. Therefore, the teacher should not call children to the blackboard to give a writing sample. Teaching writing on the board should begin after children are already confident in writing in notebooks.

METHODOLOGICAL TECHNIQUES FOR TEACHING CALLIGRAPHIC WRITING SKILLS

Considering the development of penmanship methods in historical terms, we settled on detailed description some of them. Let's consider what techniques a teacher should use when teaching children penmanship, and note which of the techniques are the most important.

1. Of primary importance when teaching penmanship is the teacher’s demonstration of the writing process and explanation of how to write letters, syllables, words, sentences during this demonstration. This is the main technique for teaching calligraphic writing skills. The demonstration is carried out on the chalkboard for the whole class or individually in the student’s notebook. The student’s task is to see and understand how to write and reproduce in his notebook the sample given to him (letters, letter combinations, words).
The teacher must write the sample on the board so that all students can see how the teacher writes. If some students do not see how the teacher writes, they must repeat the demonstration in another place on the board, stand so as not to obscure the example. You can circle what is written again with a pointer, thereby repeating the demonstration of the movement for all students in the class. Such a demonstration is absolutely obligatory when students first become acquainted with the letter, and until they have firmly mastered the ways of writing letters.
It is necessary to show students ways to connect letters, because if a student has learned how to write a letter, he does not always guess how it connects with neighboring letters. For example, a student may know how to write a lowercase letter, but not figure out how to connect this letter with others, for example, ive or ov, which seems simple and obvious to us, who have already mastered the method of writing.
Thus, if students write a letter combination for the first time, it must be shown on the board. During the alphabet period, this has to be done often.
Showing the writing of a letter or letter combination must be accompanied by an explanation from the teacher: where to start writing the letter, where to move the hand, where to make a turn, what shape or size this or that part of the letter is. If the teacher does this first, then after a while the student should learn to explain how to write, how to connect letters.

2. Another technique when teaching penmanship should be considered students copying from a ready-made sample - copybooks, a teacher’s sample on the board or in a notebook. This is a very old technique based on the fact that students imitate and reproduce writing samples.
It is necessary to distinguish between copying from copybooks and the copying method, in which the finished sample is traced or traced. When copying from a sample, a visual analysis of the sample is performed and it is compared with the reproduced one. By tracing the pattern, the student reinforces the correct movement in good execution. The tracing itself is carried out with very limited awareness. This is not an active, but a mechanical process. When cheating, the process is active, since good execution is possible only with
analysis and comparison of the sample with the execution. A good example of a teacher's writing influences students' writing not only through conscious copying - it is also a model for unconscious imitation, which is very pronounced at primary school age.
It is important that any notes the teacher makes in the student’s notebook are made neatly, in beautiful, legible handwriting.
In the presence of copybooks, the teacher’s work on writing out samples in students’ notebooks is reduced. However, the complete recording of writing samples in notebooks is not removed. The writing samples in students' notebooks are used for individual work on handwriting.

3. Copy method. It should be used in a limited manner due to the fact that tracing a sample, as we noted, is carried out by students without sufficient awareness of the writing process and even seeing the shape of the letter. Sometimes a student may circle a letter or element in the wrong direction. However, when copying, if it is carried out correctly, the student practices performing the correct movement: portion, scope, size, direction, shape - in a word, something that sometimes, visually perceiving, he cannot transfer into his movement during writing. The psychological significance of copying from a sample and circling a sample is different for the formation of writing skills. Tracing according to a pattern exercises motor concepts. Since tracing the sample is carried out mechanically, prolonged tracing tires and irritates the student; In individual work, the following exercise can be carried out to correct the shape of individual letters. At the beginning of the line, the teacher writes two letters with dots:
and writes one letter in the middle of the line. The teacher tries to write the letter in front of the student so that he can see not only the result, but also the process of writing the letter.
The student circles two letters, then writes the letters himself until the pattern written in the middle of the line. After this, the teacher and student consider how the student wrote the letters, how they differ from the sample, what needs to be corrected and how. The student then traces the letter in the middle of the line and completes the letters to the end of the line independently. When tracing a sample, the motor image of the letter remains in memory for some time, the traced movement is remembered, and the student writes one or two letters almost without errors. In order to consolidate the correct movement, in the middle of the line the student again circles the sample letter and then writes further independently.
Some teachers allow students to copy samples through transparent paper or tracing paper. Tracing through tracing paper or using dots psychologically has the same meaning - consolidating the correct movement.
In any case of copying, it is important that it is carried out as writing, with the correct movements, since otherwise copying will not give the desired effect and can lead to the reinforcement of incorrect movements.

4. Imaginary writing, or tracing over a sample, writing in the air. This technique differs from the copying method in that the student not only relies on motor sensations, but also on a visually perceived model. If, when copying, the student may not see the whole, just draw along the line, then in imaginary tracing he sees the letter as if through some kind of optical device, writes in reality, but in the air. This helps the student learn both the movement and the correct form of the letter.
Imaginary writing is carried out either according to a model written by the teacher on the board, or following the teacher’s letter on the board, according to copybooks.
Students can write letters and connect them without a sample at all, from memory, write in the air, holding a pen in their hand. Such exercises enliven the learning process. The disadvantage of this technique is that the teacher cannot take into account what the result of tracing, repeating the movement is, how accurately the children reproduce the movement and shape of the sample.
Both the copying method and imaginary writing are auxiliary techniques that, in addition to the direct influence - the assimilation of movement, the perception of form, attract the student’s attention, arouse interest in writing, and diversify the form of learning.

5. Analysis of letter shapes. Letter shape analysis can be done in different ways. You can analyze the shape of a letter, breaking it down into its component, visually distinguishable elements. For example, we can consider that the letter a consists of an oval and a stick with a curve at the bottom. This is only a formal analysis. And if we analyze this letter by elements of movement, we will see that it consists of the following elements:... We begin to write the letter a as an oval, and when we move our hand up, we write the usual connecting line with the slope that we always used when writing upwards. This movement makes the first part of the letter a different from an oval. If we write the letter a in conjunction, then in this case in the letter a we can really distinguish an oval, a connecting line going up, and a line with a rounded bottom:..., i.e., in this case it consists of three elements. Sometimes the visually highlighted elements and the movement of the hand coincide, as happens when writing the letter y.
Some letters, quite complex in shape, are written in one indivisible movement; for example, this is how the letters c and b are written. Is element-by-element analysis then necessary at all? And how should it be carried out?
First of all, we need to analyze the elements of movement when writing. As we have already noted, the main elements of movement when writing are the downward movement towards oneself:... and the connecting movement:... These movements can be traced in all letters, for example:...
Seeing the general thing, understanding that when writing downwards we always have the same inclination, and when writing upwards there is a greater inclination, but in all connecting movements it is also the same, is very important for consciously mastering the shape of letters. If students analyze the shape of letters in this way, they are more likely to develop a uniform slant in writing and the correct shape of the letters. However, these movements do not exhaust the forms of letters - these are the main, leading movements. So, for example, in a lowercase letter these movements appear very clearly:..., however, in order to depict a loop, we make a turn to the left, and with this movement a specific shape of a loop is formed. Visually, this element is recognizable in the letters d, z - as a loop extending down beyond the line line.
The teacher must remember that element-by-element analysis does not replace consideration of the shape of the letter and the features of its writing. Therefore, the teacher then explains how to write a letter, highlighting the main elements of movement, performs the features of the shape of the letter, the size of the ratio of elements.
Thus, the analysis of the letter shape is carried out differently, depending on whether the letter is being introduced for the first time and how complex it is in the way it is written. If a letter of lighter shape in the alphabetic period comes after writing a more complex one (for example, l after m), then it is enough to make a comparison with an already familiar letter, name the composition and number of elements and prevent possible and already known errors in writing this letter. It turns out what letter the new letter is similar to, what are the similarities and differences in their writing.
The first element in the letters l and m is the same, but the letter l has one line with a rounded bottom, and the letter m has two.

6. One of the methods of teaching graphic writing skills can be considered the introduction of rules into teaching that students should know well. This promotes conscious mastery of writing skills.
Conscious assimilation is especially necessary at the stage when the skill is still being improved and has not become automated. Knowing the rules of writing helps students improve their writing. Rules when writing should be formulated very briefly and there should be few of them. Every student must learn these rules and put them into practice.
The rules are made up of the tasks that the teacher sets for the students during the writing process.
In first grade, rules regarding seating and the position of the notebook are first introduced, then rules directly related to the writing process:
1) Letters in words must be written with the same slant.
2) It is necessary to write letters in words at equal distances from each other.
3) You need to write beautifully.
Starting from grade II, the following rules are introduced:
1) Letters in words should be written at the same height (2nd half of the year).
2) The syllable is written continuously.
3) You need to write quickly and beautifully.
Each of these rules contains certain content, for example: what should the slope be, how do we get the slope, etc. It is not necessary to disclose this content if the teacher knows that this is understandable for the students in the class. Sometimes the teacher may ask what the same distances of letters from each other mean, what approximately this distance should be, etc.
The teacher must introduce these rules gradually. So, he can first introduce rules for writing with the same slant. This rule is explained already in the pre-literary period. Children understand what a slanted line is, what it means to write with a slant, and repeat after the teacher that they should write with straight but slanted sticks. When moving on to writing letters, syllables and words, a rule about slanted writing is formulated.
Then, when moving on to writing sentences, a rule is introduced regarding the uniform placement of letters. After the methods of continuous letter combinations are explained, a rule is formulated about the continuous writing of a syllable.
The rule - it must be written beautifully - is, as it were, a conclusion from the previous ones. What does it mean to write beautifully? Write cleanly, without blots, do not go into the margins, try to write as in the copybooks, write straight and slanted, do not circle the letters twice.
In third grade, this rule is supplemented by the requirement to write not only beautifully, but also quickly.
You should not introduce rules intrusively at every lesson. Otherwise, this technique, aimed at conscious mastery of skills, turns into its opposite: the words do not reach the students’ consciousness.

7. An important technique for teaching penmanship is writing to the count or to the beat of the count. This technique has been used for a long time in teaching writing. Counting writing promotes the development of smooth, rhythmic writing at a certain tempo. This technique enlivens the work and arouses interest in writing. This is an auxiliary technique that should not be used for too long and constantly, so as not to make the work monotonous.
The count should be introduced as follows: the main element of the movement - we write on ourselves under the count “one - two - three”, etc., the connecting movement - under the count “and”, which we pronounce either longer or shorter, depending on the length of the path. Counting should be done by writing letters, syllables, and sometimes words.

8. One of the teaching methods can be considered the method of showing erroneous spelling so that the children themselves can see what the mistake is, why the letter, syllable, or word is written incorrectly, and find the answer on how to avoid such mistakes. At the same time, in first grade, it is better not to put on the board an example of erroneous spelling of letters. Children are encouraged to find the mistake themselves and check whether all the elements in the letter are inclined the same way. The teacher asks the children whether they tilted the elements in the letter correctly or incorrectly. You can then pay attention to whether the letters are exactly between the lines of the line or extend up or down beyond the lines. Children raise their hands and report how they wrote. The teacher gives the task to write the next three letters without mistakes. Then he checks how the children maintained the distance between the letters: so that the letters are the same distance from each other, as in the copybooks (students compare their writing with the copybooks).
In grades II and III, the teacher puts a common mistake on the board for many students, without naming those who made the mistake. For example, a teacher writes a letter on the board with an error:...
The children themselves find the mistake: the loop of the letter has deviated to the left, but should be written straight. To correct errors, you can write a letter with additional elements or depict the main elements of the letter and add the letter. An incorrectly written letter must be erased. There may be several options for working with erroneous writing (letters, compounds, words).
The teacher can use a number of other techniques. So, in order for students to see their own shortcomings and easily correct them when writing letters, straight lines are written at the same time. This technique promotes self-control when practicing letter shapes, inclination:...
Comparing their writing with the letter, the student himself sees his mistake.
Sometimes, therefore, the teacher asks to write letters at a greater distance from each other so that they can write another letter between them: . Then straight slashes are written between the letters:...
Mutual verification techniques are also used. Children love to evaluate their neighbor's work and often see someone else's mistake well. The teacher should orient children not to evaluate their work, but to help: help them see the shortcoming and explain how to correct it. When assigning mutual checking, children are given specific tasks: to check how one or another element of a given letter is written, to check some kind of connection or distance between words, etc. From class to class, the tasks can be made more complicated: to check whether the slope in the sentence is broken , in the text, on the entire page; check the height of the letter of a word, sentence, text, etc.
To develop the smoothness and boldness of hand movements, writing of various additional loops and strokes is introduced (see pp. 79, 80, 81, 82, 83, 84), designed to develop boldness, lightness and smoothness of movement in writing.
We have described the basic techniques used in teaching calligraphic writing skills. In addition to these techniques, some others can be noted, such as children drawing borders, shading small shapes, etc.
At different stages of training, the degree of application of one or another technique will be different, which depends on the level of mastery of writing skills.

QUALITIES OF WRITING AND THEIR FORMATION

Looking at samples of students’ written work, we note that one student’s writing is clear, beautiful, neat, and it’s nice to look at such work. For some students, the letters in their written work are uneven, the slope fluctuates, the writing goes beyond the line, the work is difficult to read, since some letters are similar to others. Such a letter is perceived as ugly and careless.
In order for the writing to be clear, neat, and easy to read, the teacher in penmanship and Russian language lessons must constantly work on its individual qualities.
The qualities of writing include its clarity and legibility, equal inclination, equal height of letters, compliance with 36
lines (bottom and top), i.e. compliance with linearity, rhythm, correct connection of letters and smooth writing at a sufficient writing speed. In an effort to develop these qualities in students, the teacher works in the following directions:
1. First of all, it is necessary to constantly, starting from the first lessons of teaching writing, then in penmanship lessons, improve the form of letters in students’ writing.
2. Work on the correct connections of letters.
3. Practice the correct slope and parallelism of strokes going in the same direction (up or down).
4. Work on the same height of letters on the line and on the entire page.
5. Develop equal, uniform and proportional distances between elements of letters, between letters and words.
6. It is necessary to ensure that the writing of children in the entire class is approximately the same speed.
7. It is necessary to practice the smoothness and rhythm of writing.
Let us dwell on a detailed description of the work in each direction.

Working on letter shapes
Working on the shape of letters is the main task of penmanship, since the clarity of handwriting most of all depends on how correctly an individual letter is written.
By the end of the first grade, children had learned the spelling of all written letters, but some students sometimes forget the shape of a particular letter. In grades III-IV, in the absence of special work on the shape of letters, children can write very carelessly, so that the letters are deformed and become similar to one another. Therefore, a primary school teacher must constantly work on the shape of letters, avoiding sloppy writing. If the letters are written indistinctly, resembling one another, for example, o cannot be distinguished from a, l and n are written in the same way as the letter i, in such work the handwriting is illegible and it is not easy to read. The habit of writing so that the letters are clear, not similar to one another, and what is written is easy to read, must be developed gradually and constantly. This can only be achieved through daily concern for the quality of students’ writing, constantly practicing the correct letter styles both for students in the whole class and for individual students.
It is very important for students to consciously master the shape of letters, especially at the stage before writing becomes automatic, that is, in the first and second years of study.
At this time, a visual-motor image of a written letter and the habit of writing carefully are formed. To consciously master the shape of letters, it is important that children see and know:
1) general, which is characteristic of the writing of all letters, i.e. they were able to identify the main and connecting elements of movement in the writing of any letter;
2) special, that which forms the characteristic shape of this particular letter (the presence of a loop, a semi-oval or an oval, an element going down behind the line, etc.), the proportions of the letter were known.
3) how this or that letter is written (how to start writing, where to turn, round, how to write a loop, etc.);
4) could distinguish a correctly written letter from an incorrect one, indicate what is the error in writing the letter, why the letter is written incorrectly and how to correct the error.
Let's give an example of correct work on the shape of letters. Children open the copybooks to the correct page. The task is given to look at the letter (for example, the writing of the letter Ш is practiced). It turns out that in the letter u you can find four main elements of movement: three in the strokes with a rounding at the bottom and one in the loop:... All these elements must have exactly the same slope and be written with straight strokes. It turns out how many connecting elements of movement there are in a letter. The connecting elements in this letter are written with the same, but with a greater slope than the main elements. It is noted that the connecting element in curved lines must be written after the main one, just above the bottom line of the line, slightly rounding counterclockwise, and in the loop the rounding goes clockwise.
It turns out what letters the letter ь is similar to and how it differs from them (sh, c).
The teacher writes a letter on the board, once again emphasizing the features of its writing. Then he writes two more letters on the board to demonstrate that the distances between the letters are the same. After this, the children write 3 or 5 letters. At this time, the teacher quickly walks around the class, watching how the students write. Looks at what mistakes children make when writing letters. On the board, the teacher writes the letter u with the most typical errors for the class. If children see what the mistakes are and how they distort the shape of the letter, they usually laugh, raise their hands, explain what the mistake is and how to avoid it. For example, there are two errors in the letter - uneven distances between elements and an incorrectly written loop. Under the guidance of the teacher, the conclusion is drawn that in a correctly written letter, all elements are written at the same distance; the loop should not be drawn in a rounded turn, but with a straight line down from the last connecting element of the letter w and intersect on the bottom line of the line:...
The incorrect image is crossed out or erased on the board and the correct letter is written. It is very important that children not only see the mistakes made on the board, but, most importantly, notice the mistakes in their own work. Usually, after the children are given the task of finishing a line of letters without any errors noted, the teacher asks them to raise their hands and tell them what mistakes they noticed in writing the letter, why the letter was written poorly and how to correct the mistake. Then write this letter again half a line, marking the most successfully written ones below above the letters with dots. Seeing the best letter in your writing means trying to always write it that way.
Some students do not notice their mistakes in writing letters. Then it is advisable to arrange a mutual check. Students exchange notebooks and point out to each other errors in writing letters.
Some children need to be shown separately how to represent a letter. For some students, it is enough to write the letter in their notebook in front of them. They follow the teacher’s letter and depict the letter better.
Other students need to be helped by directly guiding their movements. At the same time, the child muscularly feels what movement needs to be made at one time or another.
To clarify the motor idea of ​​the shape of a letter, it is advisable to carry out the following exercises: the teacher writes a letter on the board and explains how to write it. Then he demands that all children place the elbow of their right hand on the desk and, holding a fountain pen in their hand, write a letter in the air, first with their eyes open, then with their eyes closed, and then write the letter in their notebook.
When a teacher sees an erroneously written letter in a student’s notebook, he should be quite tactful and, when bringing up the error for discussion, not mention the student’s name. Good performance can be demonstrated in front of the whole class.
After the end of the alphabet period, when children have become familiar with all written letters, they sometimes still forget the spelling of some letters. Therefore, during penmanship lessons, the letters that are most difficult to write should be repeated and the correct form of letters should be reinforced so that students develop a strong skill in correct writing.
Most of all, the lowercase letters b, d, v, r, y, z, zh, k, f, c, sch, some letter combinations, especially in combination with the letters l, m, i, and most capital letters require constant improvement and work on errors. .
It is important that work on the form of individual letters is associated with practicing the correct spelling of it in syllables, words, sentences and texts. This work continues in calligraphy lessons in grade II, as well as in Russian language lessons in grades III-IV.

Analysis of the writing process and letter elements
Due to the fact that when teaching graphic writing skills it is necessary to proceed from the laws of the writing process, the analysis of elements when writing letters should also be subject to the laws of this process. Previously, it was accepted that when analyzing the elements of letters, they proceeded from the characteristics of the written font. This led to division into elements that did not represent any complete part of the movement when writing a letter or distorted its continuous writing, which led to the habit of writing with a break not only individual letters, but also elements of letters, even such as, for example , b. In smooth, continuous writing, letters are written in one indissoluble movement.
(...)
The teacher can use this division of letters into separate parts or elements when analyzing the shape of letters.
During the alphabet period, element-by-element analysis will help children see the letter visually represented in the sample. However, even during this period you should not get carried away with prescribing individual elements. To form the correct movement of the hand in the process of learning to write, one must proceed from an analysis of the elements of movement.
Let's consider what the new approach to element-by-element analysis of letter shapes is, what it is aimed at and how to carry it out. First of all, it is necessary to highlight the main element of movement in writing any letter. We must proceed from the fact that when we write, the main movement of the hand is towards itself (down). This movement is used to write the main element - a straight line. To write the next element, you need to move the pen away from you (up) with a slight tilt to the right. This is a connecting element. Its function is to connect two basic elements or two letters. It is most convenient for your hand to make these movements while writing. When writing, these two elements of movement (main and connecting) are carried out without lifting the hand. These elements can very easily be distinguished in the letters i, sh, p, sh, r - they consist only of these elements of movement. If the main movement - the main element - is depicted with a solid line, and the connecting one - with a dotted line, then the word write will look like this:...
The main element - the movement towards oneself - is written with a smaller inclination, but in all main elements with the same inclination; the connecting element - moving away from oneself - is written with a greater inclination than the main element, but all connecting elements also have the same inclination. The movement toward oneself, which represents the main element, is written with greater effort than the movement away from oneself. If you write with a pen, moving toward yourself produces a mark with pressure, and moving away from you without pressure. Although the pressure is not visible when writing with a ballpoint pen, the nature of the movement does not change and when writing down, the main element is written with more effort than when writing a connecting stroke.
This division into basic and connecting elements, corresponding to the writing process itself, makes it possible to highlight these elements in all letters of the written font. Let's take the following letters as an example:...
Analyzing the movement in this way, you can depict a diagram of the writing of any word, for example the word river:...
The division into the main element (direct stroke towards oneself) and the auxiliary (connecting) element of movement away from oneself is valid both for those letters that are written by turning clockwise (e, z) and counterclockwise. It is important not only for seeing the general in the form of a letter, highlighting the main thing in it, but also for the formation of such qualities of writing as uniform inclination and parallelism of strokes, rhythm, and smoothness of writing.
There are letters in the written font, the ways of writing which contradict the pattern: when writing downwards, we write straight towards ourselves, and when writing upwards, we write with a large inclination to the right. This is contradicted by the letter b. When writing upward, the slope of the element extending beyond the line is no greater, as in all connecting elements, and the ball is drawn straight upward, away from itself, i.e., with the slope of the main element. In a font, this does not disrupt the uniformity of the slope of the elements above and below the line. But since this contradicts the usual movement, when writing this letter, students very often encounter the same mistakes, for example, deviation of an element that extends upward beyond the line of the line to the right.
From the very beginning of training, the teacher must teach children to highlight this basic element - movement towards themselves, a straight slash. It is necessary to teach the student to see this movement not only in those letters where a straight line is given as an element of the letter (p, n, t), but also in any letter - as part of the movement (w, a, v, p). This finding of commonality in writing different letters contributes to more conscious learning to write.
In the post-letter period, re-writing the letter, the teacher gives the following exercises for writing:...
By doing this, he helps students see the basic element in letters. When a student writes parallel straight lines and then a letter, he must compare the drawing of the letter with these lines, see where, in what part of the letter these lines help improve its shape, and write the letter with even strokes.
Analyzing the composition of letters in this way, we should not prescribe separately the connecting elements of movement. In the living process of writing, one movement quickly and smoothly transitions into another.
The method we described for analyzing the elements of movement in writing letters is very important. It should be used at all stages of education - starting from the first grade and during the period of correction, polishing the shape of letters in students' writing. However, such an analysis does not exhaust the specifics of the forms of all letters of the written font. The analysis of letter elements can be more detailed and specific. You can, for example, talk about elements such as a line with a rounded line, a long line with a loop, an oval, a semi-oval. These elements form the specific shape of the letters. In them we can always find the main and connecting movements, but they form crosses, roundness or angularity of the transition from counterclockwise to clockwise movement, indicate the size of part of the letters, etc.:... These elements can already be seen in the picture , written letter.
In the process of writing, the elements of movement and the elements of letters drawn in the copybooks do not always completely coincide. So, we are talking about oval letters, meaning that the main element of their shape is the oval. However, a complete oval is written only in the letters o and yu. In the letters a, d, f, if they are written at the beginning of a word, the oval is not written: there is the first part of the movement and the second element:...
In the letter f we can distinguish two ovals. However, the second oval is written completely differently than the first (the first - counterclockwise, and the second - clockwise), and it becomes an oval only because we touch the middle element.
These examples show how the analysis of motion elements and the analysis of font elements diverge from each other. In the process of learning to write, both types of analysis are needed. They play different roles in teaching methods.
Analysis of the writing process helps to understand how the movement occurs when writing a certain letter, to find commonality in the image of different letters. This helps to see the commonality of shape and inclination of the letter elements.
Analysis of font elements helps the teacher explain and find common parts in different letters; references to a specific letter element (loop, rounded line) help quick orientation and communication between teacher and students.
From the analysis of the generality and complexity of the elements of movement, one can come to dividing the letters of a written font into groups according to their generality and determine the nature of exercises in penmanship from simpler movements to their complication. This will be training in accordance with the genetic principle, i.e. development from letters that are simple in execution to more complex ones. In this regard, letters, according to the commonality of the basic and formative elements included in them, are divided into groups; subgroups can also be distinguished within them.
The division into groups is based on the commonality of the movement in form, the complexity of the movement and its direction clockwise or counterclockwise. In each subsequent group, some new elements of movement are studied and those already studied in previous groups are repeated.
END OF PARAGMEHTA BOOKS

CONCLUSION
At present, when our school is going through a period of reform, it is necessary to outline further prospects for the development of methods for developing graphic writing skills.
The method of teaching penmanship, like any other, is not a frozen phenomenon. She is developing. The reasons for changing the methodology are varied. First of all, these are changes in the needs of society in the formalization of thoughts in writing (from scribes to typography, from written documentation to typewriting, tape and shorthand recording, etc.). Changes in writing tools and materials also led to changes in teaching methods. The method of teaching calligraphic writing skills was also influenced by the age of the student who began learning to write.
The very question of when to start teaching writing has been debated for a very long time. Thus, the American psychologist F. Freeman at the beginning of the 20th century expressed the idea that the maturation of the coordination of hand movements makes the age of 9 years most favorable for learning to write, and in the 20s Yu. I. Fausek experimentally showed that with a certain technique sensory development (visual and tactile perception) it is possible to learn beautiful writing from the age of 5.
It should be noted that the method of teaching penmanship is also influenced by the experience of such training in other countries. Such influence sometimes has the character of blind borrowing, fashion, and sometimes it actually enriches the learning process, at least at the stage that meets the needs of society in a given period. Thus, the transfer of writing using a fine grid from Germany to a number of countries was associated with the needs of the broader development of calligraphic writing at the end of the 19th century. The removal of oblique mesh in the same countries was associated with a hygienic assessment of its use and with a reassessment of its importance for the formation of beautiful writing skills.
Another example of the influence of teaching methods of some countries on others can be considered the transfer from England of cursive continuous writing with an upper repetition in oval and semi-oval letters.
The main sources of enrichment, and sometimes deterioration, of methodological techniques are mainly the following:
1. Conclusions and recommendations obtained in practical training. nni calligraphic writing skills. These conclusions are made based on one’s own observations or generalization of the experiences of other teachers. It must be said that this is a very important source of enriching the methods of teaching penmanship. Thus, at the beginning of the 20th century, I. E. Evseev created a wonderful methodological manual on calligraphy. Subsequently appeared guidelines E. V. Guryanova and E. N. Sokolova.
2. Transfer of experience in teaching penmanship from other countries.
3. Changes made to the methodology based on a broad or narrow laboratory experiment (methodological, psychological, hygienic).
Thus, certain proposals for the initial teaching of writing were made by E.V. Guryanov on the basis of both laboratory experiments and experimental training in individual schools (proposals for setting only one task in the initial introduction of writing, for writing without an oblique grid, etc.). As a result of experimental training in individual schools and when testing the results of E. N. Sokolova’s experiment, a new method of teaching graphic writing skills was created.
It is quite natural that any new technique develops on the basis of previous achievements. But in some periods of the existence of the method of teaching graphic writing skills, there was not a creative application of it, but a dogmatic one, which could lead to stagnation in learning or even cause some harm to it.
An example of this is the instruction that existed at one time that children should not be shown erroneous images of letters and syllable combinations. This instruction took into account only one feature of children - their imitation.
Another example of a dogmatic attitude towards this method can be considered a complete denial of the possibility of using the copy method.
The lack of scientific developments in testing working methods leads to the fact that certain provisions are mechanically transferred from one teaching aid to another without taking into account changing learning conditions, writing tools, etc. For example, until recently, the methodology gave instructions to hold the pen in your hand when writing so that its upper end is directed towards the right shoulder. This position was put forward for the most convenient writing with quill pens. When switching to writing with a ballpoint pen, such a requirement became completely unjustified. It is better formulated this way: when writing at the beginning of a line, the free end of a ballpoint pen is directed to the right of the writer. As the line is filled, it becomes more and more directed towards the writer.
It is very important to conduct more research into the process of mastering writing skills, not only individual methodological techniques, but also studying the impact of mastering a writing instrument on the quality of writing and its speed.
In order for there to be less dogmatism in teaching penmanship and the application of methodological techniques, a certain culture of the teacher is necessary (knowledge of not only methods, but also the patterns of formation of a skill at a certain age, in the long term, knowledge of the individual capabilities of children), a creative approach to the learning process, passion for one’s work.
The methodology for teaching calligraphic writing skills is given to the teacher so that in certain specific conditions he can apply methodological methods, taking into account the individual characteristics of individual students and the average level of the majority of students in the class. This concerns most of all the speed of writing and letter connections.
Let us dwell on what problems are currently controversial and how they are being solved in different countries. The main problems in teaching methods at present can be considered the following: a) how to teach writing to children 5-6 years old;
b) how to teach detached and continuous writing; c) how to use rulers in teaching writing; d) how to teach direct or oblique writing; e) what pen to teach writing with; e) what the written font should be.
The most controversial issue is teaching children to write at the age of 6 years. As is known, at this age a child’s hand (fine muscles of the fingers, coordination of movements, unfinished ossification of the hand) is not ready for rapid mastery of writing. Children at this age can successfully master the reading process, but the slow development of writing inhibits the child’s mastery of literacy.
If learning to write occurs simultaneously with mastering reading, then the child masters reading better, consolidating what he learns in writing lessons. At the same time, the child writes so slowly that either he will retain almost nothing of what he reads, or, if he is rushed, he will rush from the very beginning and spoil the developing handwriting. It was this contradiction that prompted the Methodists different countries to search for a solution to the problem. Thus, in England, America, Germany, Sweden and a number of other countries, in the initial education, instead of cursive writing, writing in block letters was introduced, in a font that included a small number of elements; the letter is called a manuscript. However, this did not lead to a solution to the problem - the speed and quality of writing did not improve, and in addition, the particular concern was when and how to reteach children to write in cursive.
In some countries (for example, in Czechoslovakia), in order to make children’s work easier and eliminate the most difficult finger movements for them during writing, they first teach writing in large written letters, then in increasingly smaller ones. In Poland, learning to read in a written font was practiced, thereby the child first remembered a smaller number of designated letters.
In some US schools, initial typing was introduced instead of initial writing.
In Bulgaria, during the transition to teaching children from 6 years of age, learning to write lags behind learning to read. First they teach reading, and at this time they prepare for writing - writing elements, exercises for developing finger movements.
Although there is a lot of rationality in these searches, the problem of teaching children 5-6 years old to write has not been solved. Unresolved questions remain about the role of creating a visual and tactile image of a letter, attempts to prepare motor skills before and during learning to write. In our methodology there were attempts of this kind (Yu. I. Fausek, N. G. Agarkova, E. N. Sokolova). Introducing machine typing into initial training in combination with other techniques can speed up the solution to this problem.
The problem of ruling a notebook in recent decades has been mainly solved this way: the oblique grid and the lines defining the direction of the tilt have been removed. The bottom and top lines are given. Any additional lines limiting the height of the line, and even the top one, lead to retraining of children at subsequent stages of education.
M. Richardson (England) took an extreme position on the issue of notebook lining, who believed that children should be taught to write without any lines from the very beginning.
The problems of teaching slanted or non-slanted writing were discussed in some detail in the manual in the section on slanting in writing, as well as the problems of detached and continuous writing in initial teaching. Therefore, we do not specifically dwell on their discussion.
There remains one more question, which at one time caused heated debate: should I write with fountain pens, fountain pens or ballpoint pens? Now this is almost no longer a problem - we must always teach children to write with the instrument that is most progressive and promising for writing. However, one can imagine a situation where the progress of technology brings the writing instrument to the point that in the hands of a writer, a pen will be like a miniature typewriter. Will it then be possible to abandon learning to write? We think not, but learning a new way of writing will also require special solutions to sensory and motor problems.
Another problem that has arisen repeatedly is the nature of the written font. Recently, there has been a tendency to simplify it. But the possibilities for simplifying it have not yet been exhausted. However, the question arises: should a capital letter differ from a lowercase letter only in size? After all, we do not confuse the letters S and s, Zh and zh. But one thing must be immutable: simplification of the font cannot be brought to the point of unrecognizability of generally accepted letters, i.e.
recording an existing font with separate elements, introducing completely different written characters from existing ones. There may be another solution to the problem of using fonts - this is the introduction in higher grades of options for writing complex capital letters in order to master calligraphic writing.
It seems to us that in the initial teaching of penmanship to children in grades 1-4, the process should be equipped not only with the use of writing samples in the form of copybooks and the demonstration of writing by the teacher. It is also necessary to create educational films, create rings that are convenient for the learning process or a display of the writing process, showing erroneous spelling, etc.
Further research and development by scientists in the field of graphic writing skills and the creative experience of the teacher will lead to further improvement of methods for developing calligraphic writing skills.

ON THE TOPIC OF:

CALLIGRAPHY
CONTENT

INTRODUCTION 2

CHAPTER I LINGUISTIC AND PSYCHOLOGICAL

BASICS OF FORMATION OF CALLIGRAPHY SKILLS 5

1.1.History of the formation of calligraphy techniques 5

1.2.Psychological foundations of the formation of calligraphic

skills of junior schoolchildren 18

CALLIGRAPHY SKILLS 26

2.1. Characteristics of modern script fonts 26

2.2. Traditional and innovative methods of teaching children

beautiful letter 32

2.3. Main types of calligraphic errors: their causes

occurrences and solutions 43

2.4. Experimental procedure 50

CONCLUSION 59

BIBLIOGRAPHY 60

APPLICATION

INTRODUCTION

From the first days a student enters school, they begin to teach him those initial reading and writing skills, without which further learning and acquisition of knowledge would be impossible. Reading and writing are closely related, but each of these skills has its own specifics.

The specificity of the letter is that it has two sides - graphic and spelling. The child must learn to write not only clearly and fairly quickly, but also competently.

Graphic writing skills are one of the types of motor skills, the formation of which has much in common with other motor skills. However, unlike other motor skills, the peculiarity of graphic skills is that they serve mental skills (reading, counting, spelling) and are formed simultaneously with them. Therefore, successful mastery of graphic writing skills depends on a strong mastery of reading and literate writing skills.

The presence of these features and the difficulties of teaching children calligraphic writing make the problem we have chosen especially important. Relevance of the problem Teaching children calligraphic writing is determined primarily by the fact that we live in an era of scientific and technological progress and a rapid flow of information, so modern people have to do a lot of education and self-education. As a result, there is a need not only for legible, but also fast, beautiful writing, the foundations of which are laid precisely in elementary school.

Famous Russian teachers, psychologists, and methodologists, such as L.S., worked to solve this problem. Vygotsky, A.R. Luria, K.D. Ushinsky, I.G. Agarkova, V.A. Ilyukhina and many others. By the term “calligraphy” they understand the art of beautiful writing, i.e. ability to write in correct (clear) and stable handwriting.

Consequently object Our research is the formation of calligraphically correct handwriting in children of primary school age.

Hence, subject thesis work is a system of methodological techniques in the formation of calligraphic skills and the identification of conditions that influence the development of handwriting of a primary school student.

The study is based on hypothesis that calligraphic handwriting will be formed if the psychophysiological characteristics of children are taken into account and clearly structured and methodologically sound techniques and exercises are used to develop calligraphic skills.

The goal follows from the hypothesis. Purpose diploma research is the systematization and justification of the most effective methodological techniques underlying the formation of calligraphic skills.

To achieve this goal and prove the hypothesis put forward, we solved the following problems:

1. study and analyze methodological and psychological
literature on the problem of developing calligraphic skills;

2. identify the conditions that influence the development of handwriting;

3. determine the most effective techniques underlying
formation of calligraphy;

4. develop a system of exercises that allows you to form
beautiful and clear writing.

To achieve the goal and set objectives, we used the following methods: analysis of methodological and psychological literature on this issue; pedagogical observation of students’ activities in educational process; experimental confirmation of the hypothesis put forward.

Theoretical significance The work consists of an in-depth and systematic study of this problem.

Practical significance is that the work presents a system of the most effective techniques and exercises for developing calligraphic skills. This system of exercises can be used in the activities of a primary school teacher.

The final qualifying work consists of an introduction, two chapters, six paragraphs, bibliography and appendices.

CHAPTER I

LINGUISTIC AND PSYCHOLOGICAL FOUNDATIONS

FORMATION OF CALLIGRAPHY SKILLS

1.1. The history of the formation of calligraphy techniques

The development of calligraphy techniques is closely related to the history of writing, the emergence and development of which, in turn, was influenced by the stages of historical development of society, the expanding and increasingly complex needs of people for communication, the achievements of scientific, technical and cultural progress of mankind, which dramatically influenced the selection of tools, materials and writing methods. In ancient times, people who wanted to convey their thoughts and write them down carved and carved letters on stone, metal, clay, and wood. Later, soft materials appear: papyrus, parchment, linen, paper; new writing instruments: reed stick, brush, quill pen, steel pen, and finally, ballpoint pens.

As in any other area of ​​pedagogical science, in the field of teaching penmanship there was a struggle of ideas, opinions, and methods. As usual, the winner was the one that at a certain stage most satisfied the needs of society.

In the 17th century, learning to write was very difficult; the method of mechanical exercises and rewriting was mainly used. Students spent several months copying the same letters in alphabetical order, then syllables, then sentences, often not being able to read what was written. When teaching writing, neither the graphic difficulties of the written alphabet nor the difficulties of mastering literacy were taken into account.

Only under Peter I the font was simplified. Russian people began to write in the commonly used European script, modeled on Latin letters. Writing has become much easier.

And only after some time teaching writing was introduced into the primary school course as an academic subject. It was part of a series of art objects. Teachers of calligraphy were also teachers of drawing and drawing. It was important to write beautifully and quickly. In the middle of the 19th century. a number of manuals for teaching cursive writing appear: V. Polovtsev “Cursive Writing Course”, Khodorowsky “Cursive Writing Course”, Barantsevich “Cursive Writing Guide”, P. E. Gradovoev released copybooks giving examples of business writing: statements, accounts, receipts, bills, etc. d.

The expanding needs of society for writing, the development of office work and various business correspondence required further simplification of the font to speed up and increase the volume of records produced. The civil font, which was created under Peter I, no longer satisfied society's demands for speed. The question arose about changing not only the font, but also the methods of teaching writing, which was separate from teaching reading. The letters were written in alphabetical order from “a” to “izhitsa”. The main method of teaching writing was the mechanical repetition of countless exercises in writing letters, words and sentences.

K.D. Ushinsky created a new technique in its entirety in 1824-1870. He introduced the sound analytical-synthetic method of teaching literacy. Ushinsky also proposed teaching children writing together with reading, i.e. meaningful. Thus, the order of learning to write depended on the order of learning to read. As a result of the introduction of the new methodology, students began to master writing more successfully. This principle has been preserved and is used in schools today.

The improvement of methods proceeded along the lines of taking into account the patterns of formation of graphic writing skills, convenience when writing, and increasing the share of consciousness when writing. Thus, it was associated with the development of related sciences - pedagogy, psychology, school hygiene, physiology, which study, to one degree or another, the process of writing from certain points of view.

At the end of the 19th century. and at the beginning of the 20th century, a variety of methodological literature on teaching children to write appeared. Among them, it is necessary to note the methodological manuals of I.E. Evseeva. His method of teaching penmanship has been republished several times: it gives a historical overview and the origin of individual methods of teaching penmanship, sets out in detail the order of studying letters in groups and methodological techniques for teaching writing, and includes copybooks and samples of different fonts.

Since the end of the 19th century, some research by hygienists has been introduced into the practice of the school. Hygienic requirements for seating are being developed, and the most convenient furniture for writing classes is being developed - the school desk of Professor F. Erisman.

A number of issues are being discussed when teaching children to write: to teach straight or oblique writing, with or without an oblique grid. It turned out that direct writing did not reduce the incidence of spinal curvature, myopia, or strabismus. The advantage of slanted writing was found primarily in the fact that it was faster and more convenient.

At this time, methods such as copying, linear, rhythmic, genetic, and the Carster method became widespread in the system of teaching writing. Over the years, preference was given to one of them.

Teaching penmanship copying (stigmographic) method consists of tracing letters printed in special notebooks (dots, pale ink) or handwritten by the teacher with a pencil. The method was introduced into schools in the 19th century and was designed to ensure that long-term, albeit mechanical, tracing of capital writing patterns should ultimately produce the correct form of letters.

Evseev I.E. and F.V. The Greeks criticized this method, saying that such writing does not lead to conscious mastery of handwriting, but is built on a mechanical exercise that dulls the mind.

However, Pisarevsky D.A. and others believed that the skillful use of this method can have a certain effect when correcting the handwriting of third-grade students. Therefore, the use of this method is possible, but not for a long time.

Linear method originates in the distant past. This method is based on the font approach to teaching - precise and always equal distances between the elements of letters, exact proportions of the height and width of the letter and its parts, i.e. a letter, and therefore words, could be written using an auxiliary grid that determined the writing height of the letter as a whole and its halves, slope, distance between elements, etc.

The graphic grid began to be used in 1857 in Germany. It quickly spread, but just as quickly fell out of use, since it was proven that the frequent oblique mesh did not contribute to the development of writing skills and the formation of the eye, but led to constrained hand movement and visual impairment.

Genetic method is that letters are studied in order from a letter that is graphically simple in shape to a letter that is graphically more complex. Based on the composition of similar elements, letters are divided into groups of increasing graphic complexity.

The genetic method has been known for a very long time. This method was also used by Pestalozzi. This method was transferred to the Russian school from European schools, and at one time it played a positive role, replacing mechanical exercises. YES. Pisarevsky believed that this method was the most suitable for the initial mastery of writing.

Recently, this method has been used to practice the shape of letters in the post-letter period. A gradual increase in difficulties occurs not only when studying the shape of letters, but also in the period from one ruling to another, in the transition from element-by-element to letter-by-letter, then to continuous writing.

Tactical (rhythmic) method - this is writing under counting, at the same pace and rhythm for all students.

Most methodologists say that this method for working with the whole class increases interest in classes, develops confidence in the smoothness of hand movements, and helps establish the desired speed of writing.

But with prolonged and constant use of this method, children get tired faster and their interest in work becomes dull.

A method of teaching writing by prescribing special exercises for the development of hand movements: fingers, hand, forearm . This method entered the history of calligraphy as the method of the Englishman Carster, who described it at the beginning of the 19th century. When using this method, free, confident and fast movements of the hand are achieved: first writing 19 elements in close-up, then letters connected by special strokes, then words without any auxiliary lines. Such strokes are necessary for mastering the ability to use the direction, space of the sheet and developing freedom and ease of hand movement.

This paragraph discusses traditional methods of teaching penmanship. As you can see, in the practice of broad training, none of the methods considered as the only one has justified itself. Therefore, when teaching children to write, it is advisable to use a combination of the above methods.

Currently, there are many different approaches aimed at improving calligraphy skills. Such as teaching writing according to I.V. Zankov’s system. and the system of Elkonin D.B., Davydov V.V., as well as traditional training programs based on the following tasks:

Raising to a new level the visual-figurative and abstract thinking of first-graders, necessary to perceive the configuration of letters, to establish the similarities and differences of characters, to develop a plan for the correct movements when writing;

Improving the ability and visual perception of various forms;

Developing the ability to navigate the space of a sheet, line, and easily determine the spatial relationships between elements of writing;

Strengthening the hand, improving coordination of movements and, in general, developing the ability to independently control the entire complex system of actions of the writing hand;

Bringing to automatism the ability to observe hygienic rules of writing (position of the body, hand, notebook, etc.).

Also, modern methods consider an important condition for successful teaching of calligraphy to be the formation in younger schoolchildren of an internal need for neat, legible, aesthetically consistent design of all notes made. Without the emergence and further preservation of such a motive, calligraphic work, even successful in the first stages of training, will subsequently be reduced to nothing.

Writing is one of the most complex types of speech activity. “Written speech,” wrote the outstanding psychologist and teacher L.S. Vygotsky, - requires for its at least minimal development a high level of abstraction... This is speech without intonation, expressiveness, and generally without the entire sounding side. This is speech in thought, in imagination, but speech devoid of the most essential feature of oral speech - material sound... It is the abstractness of written speech, the fact that this speech is only thought and not recognized, that represents one of the greatest difficulties that a child encounters in the process of mastering writing."

Writing requires high concentration from the writer, intense work of the brain and volitional sphere, activation of internal thought processes, so to speak, an affirmative order: one must clearly imagine the subject of the message, a possible and successful plan for “deploying” the content, selecting the necessary words, combining them into sentences, linking one sentence to another, correlating each of the words and sentences with the rules of spelling and punctuation and, which is very difficult, calligraphically clear outline of each letter, word, sentence, text as a whole.

Thus, at least two sides can be distinguished in the act of writing. One of them is meaningful, relating to the message that is to be embodied in written form, or to transmit ready-made texts, or to compose your own, the author’s. The other side is technical, it is directly related to the correct outline of each letter, its connection with others, and the correct spelling of individual words and sentences.

Learning to write usually begins with children mastering the calligraphic standard outline of each letter, understanding the character and outline of the combination of the latter in words.

In teaching practice, two approaches have emerged. First: After the teacher demonstrates how to correctly and beautifully write a certain letter, detailed explanations of what elements it consists of, children are invited to learn how to write each of these basic elements included in the design of the letter. And then comes the writing of the letter as a whole.

Second approach originates from K.D. Ushinsky: after demonstrating a letter - a “new sound”, children learn to write it in its entirety and as part of a whole word. It seems that such an approach is more appropriate, because it quickly and more accurately leads children to the main thing in teaching them to write - to the use of writing directly to realize certain verbal communicative goals, i.e. for the written transmission of certain content, to which the technical side of the matter will be subordinated.

In the domestic methodology of teaching literacy, a holistic approach to the process of mastering reading and writing has developed. Theoretical basis This approach is a sound analytical-synthetic method, which is implemented through the following operations:

1. division of sounding speech into sounds - phonemes, the smallest structural units;

2. their differentiation according to their main characteristics;

3. recoding into graphic symbols, i.e. letters (printed and written);

4. reverse recoding of letters into corresponding sounds-phonemes, merging them during the reading process;

5. correlating the read sound-letter complexes with a certain semantic meaning.

Performing these operations helps to master not only reading, but also writing as a speech act. The regularities of Russian graphics are revealed to the student: he represents the phonemic composition of the sounding word, correlates it with the corresponding forms of the word in the sound-phonemic form, and realizes the meaning of the spoken sound complex in the process of reading it.

Much attention in the methodology when teaching primary writing is paid to creating conditions under which an organic combination of auditory, articulatory, visual, motor and sound-motor components would occur. This will allow the student to develop a graphic skill, which will be the basis for the development of written speech in the future as he masters the patterns of his native language. This means that during the period of teaching a child to write, the teacher must take care of developing an elementary graphic skill as a complex speech-manual action.

Thus, the key concept in the methodology of teaching basic writing is “graphics”. In this regard, let us explain the terms derived from this concept.

Graphic skill - an automated method of differentiating and recoding speech sounds (phonemes) into corresponding letters, as well as drawing them on paper.

Calligraphy - the art of beautiful writing, i.e. ability to write in correct (clear) and stable handwriting.

Calligraphy errors - This is a violation of the proportion of letter elements in width, height and angle of inclination. They are a consequence of the immaturity of coordination of movements of the fingers, hand, forearm and shoulder section of the arm.

Visual elements - relatively complete parts of a letter's design, into which it is naturally divided in the process of its visual perception and which are easily correlated with certain shapes: oval, semi-oval, straight line, line with a curve on one side, a line with a curve on both sides, a line with a loop, a line with a quarter oval and a smooth line.

Visual image of a letter - this is a visual, more or less adequate idea of ​​the shape of a letter sign. Visually- motor the image of a letter is an idea of ​​a holistic, relatively complete movement of the hand when reproducing a letter on paper, which is carried out on the basis of a visual representation of its form, knowledge of the sequence of drawing its motor elements and due to corrective control of the eye.

So, the goal of working on the formation of correct handwriting, according to the program 1-4 of the eleven-year school, is the formation of clear, beautiful and fast writing. The objectives of special classes include the development of small muscles and freedom of movement of the hand, practicing the correct outline of letters, rational connections, achieving rhythm and smoothness of writing.

It is recommended to devote one lesson per week to improving calligraphically correct writing at the end of 1st grade (after studying all the letters of the alphabet) and in 2nd grade, and 8-10 minutes in grammar and spelling lessons in 3-4 grades. In addition to collective forms, work to improve graphic skills is carried out individually.

In grades 1-2, these are exercises for developing the hand and eye, writing letters in order of complexity of their designs, in groups, as well as writing individual letters that are difficult to write. In addition to letters, children write words, sentences, texts, practice copying and writing from dictation.

If in the 1st grade students work on developing calligraphic handwriting throughout the year, then in the 2nd grade penmanship lessons are given 34 hours, during a whole lesson once a week. Moreover, the writing of lowercase and capital letters is carried out in groups in order of complexity of their outline:

1. i, w, i, sh, p, r, t, g;

2. l, m, L, M, i, I, A;

3. y, c, sch, U, C, Shch, Ch, h;

4. cC, eE, oO, a, d, b;

5. ь, ы, ъ and their variants in compounds;

6. n, yu, N, Yu, kK;

7. V, 3, z, Ee, Zh, Xx, f;

8. F, U, G, P, T, R, B, D.

Exercises are carried out to transfer children to writing in notebooks lined in one line, writing letters, compounds in which shortcomings are most often made when drawing them: P, T, R, U, Z, X, N, K, F, etc. a, y, d, h, c, b, t, etc., as well as coherent rhythmic writing of words and sentences.

As a result, by the end of 2nd grade, students should be able to write words, sentences, and texts of 35-45 words correctly in calligraphy without omissions, insertions, or distortion of letters.

In grades III-IV, the content of graphic exercises consists of writing letters that are difficult in shape, amenable to deformation when writing is accelerated, typical combinations of letters, writing words, sentences, small texts according to a model and independently (when copying from printed font, when writing from dictation).

By the end of 4th grade, children should accurately and calligraphically copy and write a dictation text of 75-80 words.

The classes also include exercises to prevent and correct calligraphic deficiencies: non-observance of the inclination of letters, letters and words on a line, violation of the parallelism of equally directed strokes, the proportionality of the proportions of capital and lowercase letters, linearity, distortion of the shapes of letters or their individual elements, etc. The program also recommends that teachers write down letters and words in students’ notebooks, which will allow them to take into account their individual characteristics and formulate calligraphic writing most correctly.

Work on calligraphy, according to the program, contributes to the correct, aesthetic education of schoolchildren, instilling in them accuracy, hard work, a conscientious and diligent attitude to the performance of any work.

The ultimate goal of teaching writing is for the student to be able to:

1. “translate” a sound into a letter (meaning phonetic-graphic writing);

2. write letters, words, sentences correctly and clearly; copy from the book and from the board; write from dictation, check what you have written and correct any mistakes.

The developmental education program of Academician Zankov puts forward one of the main goals of teaching the provision of teaching children reading and writing, where the dominant position is occupied by exercises that help to correctly form calligraphic handwriting.

Children are taught calligraphically correct writing in 1st grade (in the first half of the year). Children in “Recipes” learn detached and continuous writing, built on their awareness of the following points: all the letters of the alphabet are made up of a small set of elements that are written on the top, middle and bottom sides. These elements also connect the letter with upper, middle or lower connections depending on the next element. Using the same principle, letters are combined into words.

Corrective and developmental tasks for the development of psychophysiological functions that underlie reading and writing procedures are widely presented in the “Primer” and “Copybooks”. This is another indirect way to develop these general academic skills. This program identifies five types of tasks of this kind. All of them are multifunctional, they are classified according to their dominant function:

– tasks that develop the child’s ability to differentiate
sounds, distinguish between pitch and intensity;

– tasks aimed at establishing the relationship between sound and its sign.

– tasks requiring recoding of some characters into others;

– tasks to develop the ability to accurately and consistently voice a number of characters: underlining a given letter in a sentence, etc.;

– tasks that contribute to the development of the skill of sounding letters together when reading.

At the end of the “Copybooks” the task “Test yourself” is given. Their goal is to establish the level of relative success of the student in learning and build a further learning strategy in accordance with the capabilities of each child. This is a tool for determining the degree of difficulty in implementing the didactic principle of teaching high level difficulties .

An integral task of initial teaching of the native language in the system of developing education Elkonina D.B. and Davydov V.V. is the formation in children of reading and writing skills, which constitute a necessary prerequisite for the success of all subsequent education. The theoretical basis for teaching writing in this system is the following:

1. Graphic skill is an automated way of writing. It is a technique for drawing letters and their complexes on paper. But basically it is a complex speech action, which is realized through the interconnected activity of four components: auditory, articulatory, visual and manual motor.

2. The visual image of a letter, formed in the student’s memory, serves as a link between speech (auditory-articulatory) components and the corresponding hand movements when reproducing letters and their complexes on paper.

3. In the process of teaching elementary schoolchildren initial writing, the visual image of a letter is of paramount importance. Therefore, the formation in the child’s memory of a visual representation of the shape of a letter sign should occur in the process of specially organized activity.

4.The process of primary reproduction of letters is carried out
based on the visual ideas formed by the first-grader about the shape of graphic signs and taking into account the pattern of hand movement when writing.

5. The set of written letters studied by a first-grader during the period of mastering literacy must have a certain structure. This makes it possible to implement the student’s active search activity during the practical reconstruction (construction) of the forms of the graphic signs being studied.

Thus, writing in the Elkonin-Davydov system is the action of constructing a graphic (letter) model that displays the features of the sound form of a word. Since Russian graphics, as a rule, provide the possibility of constructing several letter models of a word, writing takes on the character of an orthographic action, which consists in constructing a letter entry that meets the spelling norms of the language. It is in this form that the action of writing creates the preconditions for the formation educational activities.

When teaching six-year-old schoolchildren basic writing, the main goal is to develop basic graphic skills. Mastering graphics is associated with the development of spatial concepts, improving fine motor skills, practicing rhythm and smooth hand movements. This methodology is also focused on the concept of developmental education, which includes in the formation of graphic skills the development and use by children of a number of mental operations: analysis, synthesis, comparison, generalization and classification. The basis of this technique is the principle of single-variant outline and element-by-element study of letters, implemented using new methodological techniques: analytical perception and practical design of letter characters.

1.2. Psychological foundations of the formation of calligraphic skills of younger schoolchildren

The methods of teaching writing changed significantly in different periods of development. In 1968, a restructuring was carried out in practice, the purpose of which was to ensure that students quickly master writing skills, eliminate the difficulties associated with calligraphy, and reduce the number of hours required to develop the skill. At that time, the practice of the school did not live up to these expectations; moreover, it convincingly showed that the introduction of a new education system was not only physiologically unjustified, but also very weakly supported methodologically. The discrepancy between teaching methods and the age capabilities of first-graders has led in a number of cases to “amateur activity” by teachers and to the emergence of significant difficulties for students. Therefore, before starting the process of teaching writing, you should know the anatomical, physiological and psychological characteristics of children who come to school, i.e. determine the degree of readiness for schooling. Children of primary school age undergo qualitative and structural changes in the brain. It increases on average to 1 kg 350 g. The cerebral hemispheres, primarily the frontal lobes, associated with the activity of the second signaling system, develop especially strongly. Changes occur in the course of the basic nervous processes - excitation and inhibition: the possibility of inhibitory reactions increases. This constitutes a physiological prerequisite for the formation of a number of volitional qualities of a preschooler: the ability to obey demands, show independence, restrain impulsive actions, and consciously refrain from unwanted actions increases.

However, weaknesses in the anatomy and physiology of preschool children should also be taken into account. A number of researchers note the rapid depletion of energy reserves in nerve tissues, so any overexertion is dangerous for the child.

The musculoskeletal system of children under 10 years of age is characterized by great flexibility, so at primary school age there are cases of curvature of the spine as a result of improper posture. This adversely affects growth and formation chest, reduces the vital capacity of the lungs, which complicates the development of the body as a whole and affects the process of children learning to write. Excessive exercise in writing or other activities in which the hand is involved leads to curvature of its bones. In preschool age, small muscles also develop slowly, so actions that require precision are difficult for a primary school child.

It is at primary school age that the prerequisites and conditions for the formation of the most complex type of speech - writing - are laid. L.S. Vygotsky wrote that “the history of writing in a child begins much earlier than the moment when the teacher first puts a pencil in his hand and shows him how to write letters.”

The origins of the formation of this ability go back to the beginning of preschool childhood and are associated with the emergence of graphic symbolism. If a 3-4 year old child is given the task of writing down and remembering a phrase, then at first the child seems to be “writing down”, drawing something completely meaningless on paper, leaving meaningless lines and scribbles on it. However, later, when the child is given the task of “reading what has been written down,” then as a result of observing the child’s actions, it seems that he is reading his images, pointing to very specific lines or scribbles, as if for him they really mean something specific. For a child of this age, the drawn lines apparently mean something and have already become mnemotechnical signs - primitive pointers for semantic memory. With good reason, notes L.S. Vygotsky, we can see in this mnemotechnical stage the first harbinger of future writing. It’s just that a child’s drawing is, in essence, a kind of symbolic-graphic prerequisite for a child’s written speech.

The child exhibits quite early a tendency to write down short words or phrases with strokes of appropriate length, and long ones with a large number of scribbles. The further development of writing follows the path of transforming an undifferentiated record into a real sign. Strokes and scribbles are gradually replaced by meaningful figures and pictures, and they, in turn, give way to written signs.

Based on this, Zaporozhets A.V. notes that in the formation of any skill, including the skill of writing, complex and changing relationships take place between indicative and motor executive reactions. Thus, at an early stage of development, children perform actions using the “trial and error” method. At preschool age, motor-tactile orientation in circumstances becomes crucial. And at primary school age, the child already masters the methods of purely visual exploration. The eye anticipates and determines executive movements, and therefore orientation becomes possible not only within the perceived, but also the imagined situation.

Very important at this age, according to psychologists, is Team work, about which Vygotsky L.S. wrote: “The psychological nature of a person is a set of human relationships, transferred internally and becoming functions of the personality and forms of its structure.” Therefore, joint activity is a necessary stage and internal mechanism of individual activity; it generates the student’s initiative and has a beneficial effect on the development of calligraphy skills.

It should also be noted that in psychology and methodology a special place is given to the period during which differentiation actions are acquired, which develop in preschool age during motor development and specialization of the left and right hands occurs. For a child entering school, it becomes extremely important to finally decide on the specialization of the left and right hands.

At the age of 6 to 10-11 years, unilateral dominance of the hand and all symmetrical parts of the body endowed with autonomous motor function is established. When a child is preparing for school or entering first grade, it may turn out that the dominant hand has not yet been determined. Such a child immediately has many problems. Of course, the vast majority of children become right-handed; left-handers are the exception. However, left-handers are still found among younger schoolchildren, and teaching such children to write becomes a school problem.

Two cases are more common:

1. when it is impossible to determine the dominant hand;

2. when heterogeneity of results is detected: the right hand predominates; or the child writes with his right hand, but cuts with scissors with his left.

In such cases, it is recommended to follow common sense. If a child is left-handed for the most part, it is better for him to write with his left hand. If he is “slightly” left-handed, or two-handed, or “slightly” right-handed, he better learn to write with his right hand.

Taking these features into account, the teacher sets himself the task of teaching the child to write in accordance with established graphic standards. Teaching graphic and spelling skills is closely related and occurs simultaneously. Teaching a child to write means, on the one hand, teaching how to sit while writing, holding a pen or notebook, and following the theoretical rules for writing letters, observing a certain slope, height, and length of letters. At the same time, graphic skills belong to motor skills, the mastery of which differs in the same features and difficulties as in the formation of complex, finely coordinated actions. When performing the motor act of writing, fine and perfect coordination of movements and long-term fixation of joints in a certain position are required. In addition, writing is associated with an increase in the impact on all muscles of the body of a significant static load caused by a stationary posture.

We have already noted that first-graders, and especially six-year-olds, have poorly developed small muscles of the hand, incomplete ossification of the bones of the wrist and phalanges of the fingers, low endurance to statistical loads, and imperfect nervous regulation of movements. All this determines the extreme difficulty of mastering the skill of writing for a child of six or seven years old and, therefore, requires strict regulation of the volume of written work, compliance of methodological requirements when teaching writing with the age capabilities of the child.

But, in contrast to physiological development, psychological development, namely the cognitive sphere, undergoes great changes, which have a beneficial effect on the development of calligraphy skills. Thus, at this age, memory acquires a pronounced cognitive character; from primitive memorization techniques, students move on to grouping and understanding the connections of different parts of the material. Perception also changes. If earlier it was involuntary, then at this age it becomes voluntary. The teacher must use this significant development of the perception process in an appropriate way, i.e. learn to manage it. At this age, the ability to focus attention on uninteresting things is also formed, which is especially important when teaching children to write. The most significant changes can be observed in the area of ​​thinking, which becomes abstract and generalized, which has a beneficial effect on the process of memorizing the writing of letter elements. .

Research by psychologists and physiologists has proven that at the beginning of learning to write, children focus their attention on many details that characterize the spatial orientation of movements and the graphic correctness of their execution: the ratio of letters, their placement along the line of writing, proportionality, length, slope. Children's concentrated attention to the graphics of writing, writing out each element separately, long pauses, often exceeding the time it takes to complete a graphic element or letter, extreme slowness of writing, instability of graphic forms, patterns of movements and muscle tension - these are character traits writing of first-graders at the initial stages of skill formation.

A special study of a number of qualitative parameters of handwriting, the temporal organization of movements and the bioelectrical activity of muscles when writing in children who begin learning at the age of 6 and 7 has shown that for six-year-olds this task is much more difficult than for seven-year-olds, and differences in the speed of writing and the amount of muscle tension exist not only in the first grade, but persist in the second and third years of study. These features must be taken into account when teaching writing in primary school, since the discrepancy between teaching methods and the objective laws of skill formation hinders its improvement.

An important requirement for writing in elementary school is to increase writing speed. In this case, the graphic picture should not change. The letter should be fast and beautiful. However, teaching a schoolchild to write quickly is an even more difficult task than teaching a student to write beautifully. The speed limits for performing movements are closely related not only to the stages of developing writing skills, but also to age characteristics motor function, nervous regulation of movements.

The pace of writing increases gradually throughout all years of study; it is achieved by increasing not only the speed of writing individual elements, but also the unity of writing, reducing pauses between individual movements, gradually reducing the size of letters, using the most rational connections between letters, and increasing coherence when writing. But with all this, one should take into account the fact that an increase in the number of letters written continuously leads to rapid fatigue, violation of graphic correctness, and instability of handwriting.

According to psychologists, in the first stages of development of writing skill, each movement (letter element, letter) is the subject of a special conscious action, and only gradually, as the skill develops, individual elements are combined.

A special feature of writing by primary schoolchildren is the execution of a graphic element, a letter, a syllable and a word while holding their breath, in the air. From this point of view, continuous writing of words, which means holding your breath for a long time, will be additional factor, negatively affecting the functional state of the body as a whole.

The relatively stationary position in which the student sits when writing creates an uneven load on the muscles of the right and left half of the body. This pose, which is tiring for the arm muscles, contributes to the formation of incorrect posture. Writing, in addition, involves a lot of visual strain. Therefore, it is so important to comply with all hygienic requirements, especially the requirement for the continuous duration of this type of activity. .

It should also be noted that mastering the writing of letters is a process of mastering sign activity. The child becomes familiar with the initial elements of written language before school. Along with training modern parents, as a rule, teach the child to write letters. His own writing of letters has a multifunctional meaning for him: as a designation of objects and a designation of sounds. Therefore, for some children, the letter “D” appears as an image of a house before as the corresponding sound. In addition, the child can identify a letter with a name: “D – Dima, my letter!” At the same time, individual letters immediately begin to represent a sound sign for the child. Gradually, the child begins to understand that written speech is a kind of transformation of oral speech, that behind the letters as signs there is their sound content. The child gradually discovers the sound function of written speech, and then the child’s attention moves from the signs themselves to the signified - meaning.

Chapter Conclusions I

The method of formation and development of calligraphic writing went through a long period of development. It has undergone significant changes. But at present, the main directions for the formation of beautiful and clear handwriting have been developed.

For modern methods of teaching elementary writing, a graphic skill is a complex speech action that is realized through the interconnected activity of four components: auditory, articulatory, visual and executive.

Connected writing should be a natural result of developing the skill of age-related improvement in coordination of movements, and not an artificially imposed requirement that does not correspond to the child’s functional capabilities, inhibits the development of the skill, and sometimes leads to serious deviations in health.

Learning to write requires special preparatory work. Among six-year-old students, there are many who are characterized by unsatisfactory development of motor skills.

CHAPTER II

CALLIGRAPHY SKILLS

2.1. Characteristics of modern script fonts

Until the beginning of the 70s, fonts were adopted in Soviet elementary schools that preserved the main attributes of pre-revolutionary calligraphic writing, which was formed back in the 19th century: hair and pressure lines, various kinds of bends with dots and other complex figures that took a lot of time and effort from students , and then were forgotten, since modern means of writing - fountain pens, especially ballpoint pens - are unsuitable for the subtleties of old calligraphy.

It was necessary to introduce simpler, appropriate mass writing tools: copybooks, written fonts. As a result, the fonts that are used in modern educational books for first graders - “ABC” and “Copybooks” - were approved.

Modern fonts are characterized by the following features:

1.They are designed for pressure-free writing, do not contain hairlines, the outline of many letters is simplified and the writing of lowercase and capital letters is closer; differences in the outline of many letters when reading and writing are increased. New fonts are designed for rhythmic hand movements when writing.

2. Pressless writing is done with a ballpoint hand, using blue paste.

Z.V modern school, basically, children write by counting, which contributes to the rhythm of writing. To count, elements of letters are written, then letters, then syllables, whole words.

Now let's look at what modern copybooks are and the features of their use in elementary school. So, "Proceedings" - This is a comprehensive textbook designed to perform work in a literacy lesson that follows the ABC lesson, the following main types of work:

1. syllable-sound analysis of words using subject pictures and diagrams, accompanied by work with split syllables and letters, and reading composed words;

2. comparison of the styles of printed and written letters;

3.exercises in reading words and sentences given in the “Copybook” in written font;

4.element-by-element analysis of written letters using tables and comparison of the letter being studied with those previously studied, based on the identified basic elements of this letter;

5. analysis of a finished sample of letter writing (element by element and as a whole);

6.exercises in writing letters, their compounds, syllables, words;

7.exercises in analyzing sentences, describing them or taking dictation;

8.repetition exercises in writing letters;

9.drawing exercises that prepare students for writing letters and their elements.

“Copybooks” are compiled in accordance with the primer and are intended for children’s writing during the period of learning to read and write. Learning the letters follows the order in which the letters in the primer are learned. “Copysheets,” on the one hand, make the teacher’s work easier, on the other hand, and for students, this is a model in which there are no errors: correct slope, no variations in the shape of letters, no random deviations or omissions, which is always possible in a teacher’s work. However, the teacher must show how to write the letter in large size on the board for all students, explaining out loud in detail where to write, what shape, where to point the pen when writing letters, etc. .

It should also be noted that the materials in “Copywriting” take into account the specifics of the preparatory and main periods of literacy training: first, exercises in shading and drawing borders predominate, the outlines of the basic elements of letters are learned, then exercises in syllable-sound analysis: words and analysis of outlines come to the fore written letters; then exercises in writing based on samples, in copying not only from written, but also from printed font, begin to occupy an increasing place.

The general education program stipulates that before teaching writing, the teacher introduces students to the rules for making notes in notebooks and signing notebooks.

“Recipes” also implements a very important property of writing - continuity. This is facilitated, firstly, by the almost complete absence of superscripts (except for the letters й and ё). Secondly, almost all the letters are such that you don’t have to take your hand off the paper when drawing them (the exceptions are the letters x, e, capital B, G, P, R, T). Thirdly, the new fonts were specially developed with the expectation of seamless connection of all letters, i.e. for a uniform spelling of syllables and words.

Continuous writing accelerates the development of graphic skills. Great attention is paid to letter connections in teaching writing methods. The student must know how to connect all the letters. They should be told some, at least basic, principles of connections: common features of both the first and second letters in the pair being connected; Thus, compounds can be considered the same type oi, shi, ish etc., where the connection is directed from bottom to top.

There are top connections, for example op; directed from bottom to top, for example shi; average, for example ae, and lower ones, for example ill. The “Copybooks” provide examples of all compounds of both lowercase and capital letters.

To master the skill of continuous connection, schoolchildren must learn some techniques, namely: firstly, this is a way to re-draw a line along an already drawn one. This is how the letters o and l are connected (the repeated line has the opposite direction) or yu with any other letter (the repeated line has the same direction as the original one). Repeated, double drawing of a line can take place not in the first letter of the connection, but in the second, for example, in a syllable sha .

Recently, the question has arisen that the Copybooks do not form calligraphically correct handwriting well enough. Therefore, V.A.’s method of teaching writing arose. Ilyukhina, which reflected the accuracy of landmarks, a clear understanding of the trajectory of movement when writing letters, and knowledge of psychological and physiological characteristics younger schoolchildren.

But here, too, difficulties arise. In 1879, the French Hygiene Society published rules on writing hygiene, one of which states: write straight, and the slant will be created by the inclined position of the notebook. Now auxiliary lines have been introduced with a slope of 64 degrees and at a distance of 3 cm from each other. However, in almost every lesson, children have problems putting the letters straight, so the conclusion is that the slope is too great.

And this problem found its response in the teaching practice of T.M. Khaibullina, primary school teacher in Omsk. She believes that beautiful writing is like the work of a jeweler. Therefore, relying on the experience of artists, the essence of which is making a drawing in cells, she introduces the same principle when teaching children to write. As a result, notebooks for 1st grade with original lines appeared. Their features:

1. The number and width of lines on the page remain the same.

2. The width of the letter is approximately 0.5 cm. The auxiliary lines are at a distance of 0.25 cm from each other, which ensures writing “in cells”. The child can hold the desired width. From the first steps, his hand “remembers” the correct spelling of letters.

3. The inclination of the auxiliary lines is reduced to 77 degrees, which avoids such troubles as “falling” letters. The child needs correct guidelines, and not comments like “Place the letters!”

You can switch to writing in a wide line as early as 1st grade, and without any particular difficulties for the child. You just need to clearly show the ratio of the wide and narrow sides.

M.S. Soloveichik, P.S. Zhedek, N.N. Svetlovskaya and other methodologists agree that additional ruling facilitates and promotes better development of calligraphic skills. But they note that when using additional ruling, it is important to remember that the guidelines should be gradually simplified.

First, vertical (oblique) lines in the interline space are eliminated - they are replaced with dots, then what remains is the working line and rare (every 30 mm) vertical (oblique) lines. Such a change in the ruling ensures a constant complication of the student’s actions, increasing his independence.

It should be noted that in the methodology of teaching writing there are uniform requirements for maintaining “Copybooks” and notebooks:

1. Write in a notebook in neat, legible handwriting.

2. Write uniformly on the cover of the notebook: indicate what the notebook is intended for, class, number and name of the school, last name and first name of the student.

Notebooks for students in grades 1 and 2 (in the 1st half of the year) are signed by the teacher.

3. Maintain margins on the outside of the page.

4. In grade I, the date of writing work is not written. In grades II-IV, the completion time is indicated: the date is in Arabic numerals, and the name of the month is in words.

5. In the notebook you must indicate the number of the exercise, task, and indicate where the work is being done (classroom or homework).

6. When starting to write the text of an exercise or a paragraph, children must follow the red line.

7. Do not skip a line between the date and the title, the name of the type of work and the title, as well as between the title and the text in Russian language notebooks.

Between the final line of the text of one written work and the date or title of the next work in Russian language notebooks, skip two lines.

8. The student must correct mistakes as follows: cross out an incorrectly written letter or punctuation mark with an oblique line; part of a word or sentence – with a thin horizontal line; Instead of crossing out, write the necessary letters, words, sentences; Do not put incorrect entries in parentheses.

9. Underline carefully with a pencil, and if necessary, use a ruler.

2.2. Traditional and innovative methods of teaching children

beautiful letter

An important indicator of a child's readiness for school is the development of fine motor skills of the fingers. The ability to make precise movements with the hand and fingers is of great importance for mastering writing. Therefore, before the child enters school and in the process of teaching him to write, the teacher must create conditions for the development of small muscles of the hand.

In teaching children to write, there are many games and exercises for developing motor skills, let’s look at some of them:

1. Modeling from clay and plasticine.

2. Drawing, coloring pictures.

3. Making paper crafts, natural material: cones,
acorns, straw and other available materials.

4. Design.

5. Fastening and unfastening buttons, snaps, hooks.
Tying and untying ribbons, laces, knots on a rope.

6. Screwing and unscrewing lids of jars and vials.

The listed exercises bring triple benefits to the child: firstly, they develop his hands, preparing him to master writing, secondly, he develops his artistic taste, which is useful at any age, and, thirdly, child physiologists claim that a well-developed hand will “pull” the development of intelligence.

So, let’s assume that we have an ideal student: diligent, neat, hardworking, with well-developed physiology and normal mental development. But in this case, the question arises: “What techniques should be used so that the student does not lose the above qualities?”

In this regard, there are quite a lot of different methodological instructions in the methodology aimed at developing clear and beautiful handwriting in students.

In the basic textbook, on the basis of which future primary school teachers are trained and whose authors are Lvov M.R., Ramzaeva T.G. and N.N. Svetlovskaya, it is indicated that children learn the spelling of each letter in a separate lesson. A huge role in teaching writing belongs to the analysis of the letter, its constituent elements, comparison of the letter by composition and style. It is necessary to develop in children an analytical vision of the shape of letters, methodologists note.

In the Russian written alphabet, frequently repeated elements can be identified: this is a short line in a letter P and the longest in a letter R, a line with a curve at the bottom - an element of letters i, w; straight with loop in

letters y, d; oval and semi-oval in letters O, With; a line with curves on both sides - bottom and top - in the letter g; small loop in letters ts, sch.

During the preparatory period, children learn to write letter elements; In the future, elements are highlighted when writing each new letter, which provides an analytical approach.

When learning to write, it is also very important to work on the shape of letters, on the arrangement of their details, which an adult usually does not notice. Underestimation of work on the shape of letters leads to difficult-to-correct graphic errors, and in the future - to incorrect development of handwriting. What is meant here?

How much space should be left between words? (Approximately equal to the letter And lowercase). Where should the loop intersect? at letters d, y?(On the bottom line). At what height should the cross connection begin? at letters s? (In the middle of the line, if writing on a double line). At what height should letters be connected? m And l ?

(About a third of the letter's height). What height should the bottom anchor of the letter be? V? (About a third of the letter's height). How high should the letter loop be? e?(A little more than half the height of the letter). And so on.

This method of teaching letter writing can generally be defined as analytical-synthetic. In practice, it is usually used in combination with imitation of a model: copying copybooks by repeatedly rewriting letters or words.

Other well-known methodologists, including Zheltovskaya L.Ya., Sokolova E.N., agree with the stages of teaching calligraphy highlighted above, and offer their own techniques that a teacher should use when teaching children penmanship.

1. Of primary importance when teaching calligraphy are
showing the teacher the process and explaining how to write letters, syllables,
words, sentences during this show. Displayed on
on the blackboard for the whole class or individually in a student’s notebook.

The teacher must write the sample on the board so that all students can see how the teacher writes. You can circle what is written again with a pointer, thereby repeating the demonstration of the movement for all students in the class.

It is necessary to show students how to connect letters, because if a student has learned how to write a letter, he does not always guess how it connects with neighboring letters.

Showing the writing of a letter or letter combination must be accompanied by an explanation from the teacher: where to start writing the letter, where to move the hand, where to make a turn, what shape or size this or that part of the letter is. After some time, all these commenting operations must be done by the student himself.

2. Another technique when teaching writing should be considered
copying by students from a ready-made sample - copybooks, teacher's sample on
board or notebook. This is a very old technique based on the fact that
Students imitate and reproduce a writing sample.

When copying from a sample, a visual analysis of the sample is performed and it is compared with the reproduced one. By tracing the pattern, the student reinforces the correct movement in good execution, but the process is mechanical. And when cheating, an active process, it is possible to analyze the letter and compare the sample with the execution.

3.Copy method. It should be used sparingly
due to the fact that tracing a sample is an insufficiently conscious process. However, if copying is carried out correctly, the student practices performing the correct movement: portion, scope, size, direction, shape. Tracing according to a pattern exercises motor ideas, since it is carried out mechanically. When tracing a sample, the motor image of the letter remains in memory for some time, and the traced movement is remembered.

Some teachers allow students to copy samples through transparent paper or tracing paper. Tracing through tracing paper or using dots psychologically has the same meaning - consolidating the correct movement.

4.Imaginary writing or tracing over a sample, writing in the air. This technique is based on motor sensations, but also on a visually reproduced pattern. In imaginary tracing, he sees the letter as if through some kind of optical device; he writes realistically, but in the air. This helps the student learn both the movements and the correct form of the letter.

But this technique also has its drawback, which is that the teacher cannot take into account what the result of tracing, repeating the movement is, how accurately the children reproduce the movement and shape of the sample.

5.Analysis of the letter shape, which can be carried out in different ways. You can analyze the shape of a letter, breaking it down into its component, visually distinguishable elements.

But in the Russian language, some letters are quite complex in shape and are written in one indivisible movement, such as V And b.

Here it is important to see the general thing, to understand that when writing downwards we always have the same slope, and when writing upwards there is a large slope, but in all connecting movements it is also the same, which is very important for conscious mastery of the shape of letters. If the student analyzes the shape of the letter in this way, then he will most likely develop a uniform slant in writing and the correct shape of the letters.

Therefore, the analysis of the letter shape is carried out differently, depending on whether the letter is being introduced for the first time and how complex it is in the way it is written.

6. One of the methods of teaching graphic writing skills can be considered the introduction of rules that the student must know well. This promotes conscious mastery of writing skills. Knowing the rules of writing helps students improve their writing, but they should be very brief and few in number.

In 1st grade, rules regarding seating and the position of the notebook are first introduced, then rules directly related to the writing process:

Letters in words must be written with the same slant.

It is necessary to write letters in words at equal distances
from each other.

You need to write beautifully and quickly.

Letters in words should be written at the same height.

The syllable is written continuously.

The teacher must introduce these rules gradually, but at the same time this must be done unobtrusively, but at every lesson. Otherwise, this technique, aimed at conscious mastery of skills, turns into its opposite: the words do not reach the students’ consciousness.

7. An important technique for learning calligraphy is writing under
count or in time with the count. This technique contributes to the development of smooth
rhythmic writing at a certain tempo. It enlivens the work, causes
interest in writing.

The count should be introduced as follows: the main element of the movement - we write on ourselves in the count of “one-two-three”, etc., the connecting movement - in the count of “and”, which is pronounced longer or shorter, depending on the length of the path. Counting should be done by writing letters, syllables, and sometimes words.

This technique promotes self-control.

9. The technique of mutual verification is also used. Children like
evaluate the work of a neighbor and often clearly see someone else’s mistake. Teacher
should orient children not to evaluate work, but to help: help
see the flaw and explain how to fix it.

Fedosova N.A. notes that the above techniques are not always effective. It involves carrying out individual additional work to teach children to correctly and accurately perceive the configuration of each letter.

All written letters can be divided into three groups.

To 1st group we can include those letters in which their elements are not clearly visible: i, i, p, n, t, i, i etc. For this group, it is useful to carry out preliminary work on unlined sheets of paper. After the teacher explains how to write a letter, the children write the letter and its elements on the entire sheet of paper they receive, as their hand allows.

The teacher gets the opportunity to immediately control how the student perceives a given letter and can help him eliminate errors before writing in the notebook. This method allows the student to see the elements of the letter and feel their difference.

2nd group form letters in which their elements are clearly visible. These are the letters: a, a, yu, yu and etc.

When preparing children to write such letters, it is advisable to give them an image of a particular letter in the form of a drawing that resembles its configuration.

3 group make up letters in which the loop is an important element: y, d etc.

These are the most difficult letters to write. When teaching them to write, it is important to provide them with hands-on work with wire. Children seem to model it. The teacher checks the progress of the work, and only after everything is done correctly, students can write the letter in their notebooks.

To confirm this technique, there is a technique by N.G. Agarkova. She believes that since writing is characterized by a specific visual-motor link, the role of visual representations of letters and their complexes in the writing process is that only through visual representations is the connection between the auditory-speech-visual representation and the motor one, characteristic of a graphic skill, established. Therefore, she considers the most effective method of forming an image to be the study of letters by constructing and re-constructing written letters from template elements.

Agarkova N.G. based her work. laid out the graphic structure of the written letters of the Russian alphabet.

In a drawing of any letter, you can isolate separate logically complete parts or elements: straight line, curved line with one side, a line with a curve on both sides, a line with a loop, line with an oval (to the middle of the line), smooth line, semi-oval, oval And additional element- two points.

Thus, the entire written alphabet is composed of only eight elements based on their various combinations in shape, size, spatial position and quantitative composition.

Therefore, according to N.G. Agarkova, the design of letters of the alphabet can be carried out using a set of templates-elements of written letters. They are made of dense material, i.e. mostly made of wire. And then the children begin to construct letters, as they are learned in the “Primer Book”. For example, when learning the lowercase letter o, you can use techniques to reconstruct the letter a into o and practically show the student the similarities and differences between these letters.

Another teacher, a methodologist, Ilyukhina V.A., developed new approaches to the formation of graphic skills, writing with a “secret”. She agrees with other methodologists that the writing process is carried out with the help of visual and motor analyzers and with a certain level of development of small muscles and coordination of movement.

Ilyukhina V.A. believes that the transition to single-line notebooks is most effective in the first quarter of P grade. But the oblique rulers in the notebook after studying the “Copybook” can be eliminated by introducing the student to control his “lateral vision”, i.e. carry out equal writing without supporting oblique lines.

When teaching writing, it is important for the teacher to rely, according to V.A. Ilyukhina, on the principle of taking into account the individual characteristics of children: it is good to know children’s writing abilities, take into account the children’s visual characteristics, and notice deviations in motor skills. The teacher must see each student not in general, but in his specific actions.

Taking into account individual characteristics, the teacher must also adhere to the following the most important stages in the work on the formation of calligraphic handwriting:

1. Introducing children to a new activity for them, which is based on fairy-tale material.

2. Familiarize children with the basic writing algorithm, consisting of seven points. In practice, the first 2-3 lessons are devoted to this stage, but they are very significant for the entire process of developing graphic skills.

3. Using the basic writing algorithm when writing all letters, practicing specific elements of writing each letter, which occupies the entire alphabetic period.

4. Automation of graphic skills and further development of the ability to pronounce the way to write a letter.

The division of the process of learning to write into separate stages is conditional, and they are all intertwined with each other.

1.Writing straight slanted lines in compliance with precise
intervals and parallelism of lines. At the same time, the teacher comments
writing a letter while simultaneously displaying it on the board:

“We place the pen on the top ruler of the working line and lower it down along the inclined line.” At the same time, the teacher, in his own words, must prevent mistakes that students may make.

2. The ability to divide an inclined line, and with it the working line
line into 2 and 3 parts vertically in order to prepare for the correct
performing connections of elements of letters and letters in a word, i.e. inclusion
a certain mathematical calculation in writing letters and words.

The teacher shows what half is by suggesting that half the height be compared only with the interval between the lines and leading the children to understand that they are equal. Finding the third part makes it possible to have the exact location of the connections of elements and letters above or below the middle of the working line. Afterwards, students do these operations themselves, which helps them develop graphic vigilance.

3.Ability to correctly perform a curve on the bottom line
working line as a connecting element with the subsequent element.

This stage should convey to the children’s consciousness that the rounding is a special element of writing a hook, which is part of the letter And is a frequently occurring element in other letters. Learning to correctly perform a curve when writing a hook is a very important task. The rounding is done, but the straight inclined line is not brought to approximately 1/10 of the height of the working line.

4.The ability to rise up correctly after rounding - in
side, to the middle of the line - the letter of the hook line, which, together with
straight slanted and rounded is usually called a hook. After
sticks (3 stages) the hand should move to the right up the page to the middle of the working line, while dividing the angle formed by the inclined
line and the lower linear working line, approximately in half.

The verbal part of the algorithm is expressed for children as follows: “Place the handle on the top line of the working line, go down along the inclined line, perform a turn in place (stick) without lifting your hand, rise along the hook line to the middle of the working line...”.

The teacher dictates this part of the algorithm and asks the children to express graphically what he says in words, and as many times as it will be repeated.

5. Letter of “secret” - lines that continue the hook
a line from the middle of the line to its top line, i.e. straight line, which
connects the end of the hook to the top line of the working line and writes
parallel to a straight inclined line. The secret is based on
the following reasoning:

I put the pen on the top ruler of the working line, go down along the inclined line, perform a stick (turn in place), go up along the hook line to the middle of the line, write “secret”...

6. Write down the “secret” to the bottom line of the line, i.e.
writing a second slanted line that is parallel to the first
slanted line (“hide the secret”).

7. Completion of writing the second hook (second rounding and
second “hook line”).

After students have thoroughly mastered all the stages of the letter being studied, they move on to writing syllables with that letter, followed by words and sentences.

Of interest is the method of teaching children to write, developed by the teacher of Shelekhovetskaya secondary school V.V. Belevtseva. She calls her technique “finger”. Its essence lies in the fact that the index and middle fingers of the left hand work. V is two fingers, I is one finger. When first-graders begin to read a merger (or combination of letters), they simultaneously duplicate them - V, single pronunciation units - I, for example:

Oak, tractor

When writing, the fingers become controllers. They do not allow you to write an extra letter or, conversely, lose it. “Fingers” are of great help when writing such words, where

e, e, yu, I'm in weak position - blue,

or words with ъ and b: family, entrance.

The teacher believes that this technique is effective, since the writing algorithm is no different from the reading algorithm. Belevtseva V.V. even suggests conducting finger dictations at the beginning, with pronunciation, and then written ones. And he claims that children have fewer errors (extra letter, lack of letter) relative to extra elements.

2.3. Main types of calligraphic errors: their causes occurrences and solutions

At all stages of the development of literacy teaching methods, there was a lot of controversy about handwriting. Some believe that good handwriting is an important condition, others deny its importance, and some argue that handwriting is a character, so it is impossible to form it. But if handwriting reflects character, how can one then deny the fact that a teacher, working on handwriting, can contribute to the formation of character?!

Many teachers, while working on a student’s calligraphy, also work on his behavior, i.e. raise him. Therefore, teaching writing has recently become part of moral and aesthetic education, and this, in turn, is very important, since the period of formation of handwriting coincides with the period of personality formation.

Beautiful writing is an expression of attitude towards other people, and sloppy, illegible handwriting to some extent indicates inattention and indifference to the other person. However, the ability to see beauty is not enough. It is important through teaching writing to teach a child to think, develop logic, and make this subject not exhausting, but exciting, interesting and productive.

But despite all the efforts of the teacher, quite often in a class of 30 people only 2 can write in calligraphic handwriting. Physiological, psychological and pedagogical studies have proven that when teaching primary schoolchildren to write, there are the following causes of handwriting disorders.

Firstly, these are the shortcomings of the sanitary and hygienic aspect:

a) students sit hunched over, legs crossed, leaning their chests on the table;

b) they write literally “with their nose”;

c) the left shoulder is pushed forward and sticks out at an angle, the left hand
tucked under the armpit of the right arm and propping up the head;

d) the right hand is incorrectly positioned on the table (elbow or
hangs down sharply, or goes too far to the right, up from the edge of the table, or
pressed closely to the body);

e) when writing, the head has different inclinations both to the left and to
right shoulder;

f) the student’s entire figure expresses tension and effort.
Secondly, the motivational-need block of writing, i.e.

formation of the student’s attitude towards writing activities, his interest. Thus, the observations of many teachers show that almost all students do not like to write. They have no need for this new speech function. They have vague ideas about its necessity. “I don’t want” and “I can’t” are two almost insurmountable obstacles on the path of a primary school student. This barrier of reluctance in learning to write greatly hinders the process of success. And this is understandable: monotonous and monotonous writing of letter elements and their connections leads children to fatigue, and lack of interest interferes with the desire to learn, does not activate the formation of mental activity, the development of creative speech abilities, and does not create positive motivation for learning.

Thirdly, analyzing the situation with writing, it should be noted the careless, sloppy, unaesthetic maintenance of notebooks by students:

a) notebooks are signed carelessly and with errors;

b) sloppy recording of both class and homework;

c) errors are corrected by the student or after repeated
crossing out a letter, or by writing over an erroneously written one
letter;

d) the corners of the notebook are bent and worn;

e) a uniform spelling regime is not observed.

Fourthly, the lack of effectiveness in teaching children to write is the immaturity of handwriting, in other words, the immaturity of graphic skills, which results in the absence of calligraphic writing.

In this regard, in the methodology of teaching students calligraphic writing, the following graphic errors are highlighted:

1. Violation of the 65° tilt. This violation, as a rule, leads to non-parallelism of letter elements and even elements of one letter and is often accompanied by curvature of the elements.

2. Errors associated with violation of proportions: vertical - unequal height of letters or their parts; horizontal - unequal width of letters and their elements; proportions between parts of letters (increased or reduced elements of letters).

3. Distortion of ovals, semi-ovals and other elements containing roundings and curved lines. These errors include distortions associated with the inability to draw a correct curved line (the line seems to consist of countless small zigzags - a broken line), as well as errors associated with non-compliance with proportions.

4. Omitting elements of individual letters or replacing elements of letters: instead of m-l, instead of d-a.

To successfully overcome the erroneous spelling of individual letter elements, it is very important to understand their causes and in each individual case choose the appropriate technique to correct the error. Overcoming errors of group 1 requires practicing straight parallel lines with the required slope to the line of 65°; correcting errors of group 2 requires developing the eye, without which it is impossible to maintain proportions. Group 3 errors require work on curved lines, on bends and twists, on the smoothness of hand movement. Finally, errors of group 4 are associated with impaired attention.

In the methodology of teaching students to write, there are also errors that slow down the speed and worsen the quality of writing, these are:

1. incorrect spelling of ovals when the student starts them
from above and leads not from right to left, but from left to right.

2. incorrectly drawn loops of letters, when the lower element deviates to the right .

The reasons for this type of writing are incorrect directions of hand movement when writing. These errors can be corrected by giving the student specific instructions and demonstrating the correct direction of the hand.

Particularly difficult to correct is the so-called “clumsy” handwriting. It is characterized by very small or large writing, stretched letters, and a decrease in the quality of writing from the beginning of the text to its end. The cause is tension in the muscles of the shoulder girdle. The child gets tired quickly and by the end of the lesson his writing is simply terrible. As a result of establishing this “obstacle,” the teacher must help the child relax his muscles with the help of various exercises, remember this feeling and continue writing further.

Calligraphic errors occur not only in the writing of individual letters, elements of letters, but also in entire sentences. And here we can distinguish the following groups of errors:

1. When writing, children do not maintain the spacing between letters in words and place words unevenly on the line.

2. Letters are written too wide or too narrow.

3. Very often in students’ work there is a multidirectional tilt or an excessive tilt to the right or left.

4. They do not follow the arrangement of letters along the lines of the line, i.e. do not maintain linearity when writing.

5. The letters do not maintain the required height (too large, too small).

6. The writing is often broken and pretentious.

7. There is a “crankiness” and angularity in the writing.

8. The coherence of letters when writing is not maintained.

9. Complete illegibility of handwriting, “mess”.

In teaching students to write, there are various methods for eliminating calligraphic errors.

Thus, Associate Professor D.S. Fonin notes that the erroneous spelling of letter elements is not ballpoint pen and insufficiently lined notebooks, but that primary school students have insufficiently developed cognitive processes, in particular perception. And he achieved high results due to the fact that he taught children to determine the height, slope and width of letters by eye, while the teacher should scrupulously monitor the insufficient correction of the slightest flaws, point out them and teach the children to immediately correct them on the next line.

Many methodologists, including V.F. Odegova, believe that in order to avoid a painful transition from one lined line to another, six-year-old children should be taught to write in single-line notebooks with a distance between lines of 9 mm in 1st grade. This experience was borrowed from the Czechoslovak school and applied to ours. The essence of the method is that at the beginning a sample of a large letter is given (the outline of the letter is practiced on it, the children remember where the letter begins, trace it in the air, write 2-3 test letters of the same size side by side), then in the next line it is given a smaller letter that requires less effort and attention, in the third line the letter is smaller, just below half the line. This type of writing training relieves stress and eliminates monotony in work.

Impaired handwriting of students may be associated, as noted above, with the cognitive sphere. Thus, in younger schoolchildren the visual memory, as a result of which calligraphic errors may occur. Possible difficulties can be resolved by selecting for students a system of exercises that helps develop a particular process.

The method contains exercises that are aimed at training visual perception, spatial perception, etc. (See Appendix 1).

Totality various types exercises will help the teacher develop mental processes. And this, in turn, will become the “foundation” of calligraphic writing.

The Russian people have always appreciated beautiful writing. He said: “To write beautifully is to create beauty.” How to teach this to a child? This question worries many elementary school teachers, since beautiful writing is also literate writing, therefore, in grades 3-4, incorrect calligraphic writing generates spelling errors, so teachers of grades 3-4 spend a few minutes of penmanship before moving on to the topic of the lesson. Such work is not always effective, since in most cases students are not interested in doing what they think they have been able to do for a long time. Primary school teacher G.I. Karnaukhova was able to cope with this, and now in calligraphy lessons, students themselves, through the drawing of an object, give birth to an image, give birth to a new thought. First, when composing the composition, using shading, the children came up with very interesting stories about friendship, traveled around their native land, and unraveled the secrets of the forest. This work helped not only to develop the ability to write quickly, maintaining clarity, smoothness, rhythm, slant, coherence, and linearity of writing, but also made it possible to develop students’ speech, linguistic sense, phonemic hearing and spelling vigilance (See Appendices 2, 3).

It is these moments of penmanship that become a holiday for students. They are varied; students can make up sentences themselves, remember proverbs and riddles. It is this kind of work that arouses interest; children have an incentive to write beautifully.

It should be noted that a special place and important role is devoted to teaching children writing in 1st grade. It is at the first stage of training that the teacher lays the foundation for the development of calligraphy skills. The experience of E.N. is very interesting in this regard. Potapova (See Appendix 4), who identifies 3 main stages of learning to write in a lesson: the development of muscle memory, the development of tactile memory and the consolidation of acquired information using a letter stencil. Such teaching of writing develops the student’s cognitive sphere and arouses interest in acquiring new knowledge.

2.4. Experimental procedure

The purpose of the experiment is:

skills of primary school students;

– conducting a series of exercises that promote the formation of calligraphically correct handwriting;

– identifying the level of calligraphic formation
skills after the special introduction of various types of exercises.

The study was carried out in three stages: ascertaining, formative and control. All these stages were an inextricable sequence.

The ascertaining stage oriented us towards establishing the actual state of the object under study, ascertaining the initial parameters. The main goal is to record the realities that were the starting points for the formative stage, the purpose of which was to create and test the effectiveness of the developed system of exercises aimed at developing the calligraphic skills of primary schoolchildren, which, in our opinion, should have increased the achieved level. At the control stage, a cross-section was carried out, which made it possible to judge the effectiveness of the exercise system we proposed.

During the experiment, it was necessary to track the level of development of calligraphic skills among students, identify the most common calligraphic errors and propose a system of exercises to help eliminate these errors.

The experiment was carried out on the basis of a secondary school in the village of Kurskaya, Kursk region. In total, 60 third-grade students were involved in the ascertaining experiment (3 “A” - experimental group, 3 “B” - control group).

Tasks ascertaining stage were formulated as follows.

Students' ability to write sentences correctly and clearly in calligraphy is tested. An indicator of training is the ability to write a sentence in calligraphic handwriting.

1. The heart is light from a cheerful song.

2. The bell rings, the bell rings, calling the children to class.

3. A quiet warm dawn rose above the ground.

4. Matryoshka is a wooden doll.

5. You should listen to the real starling song early in the morning.
The work is considered completed if the student writes down a sentence

calligraphically correct.

Analysis of students' notebooks for calligraphic errors.

Identification of main errors, their classification taking into account the writing of the basic elements of letters.

The ascertaining stage showed that students make the greatest number of errors when writing complex elements, such as: a straight line with a loop, an oval and a small loop (See Table 1).

Table 1

Analysis of the results of the ascertaining stage of the experiment

An analysis of the students' work showed that when writing in a straight line with a loop, they made the following errors: the loop intersected below the bottom line, deviations of the loop to the left were observed, and very often the shape of the loop was changed. When writing letters: o, a, d - students very often make mistakes associated with insufficient beautiful shape oval: very round or irregular (“lumpy”) shape. And when writing a loop for the letters u, d, z, sch, c, students very often either deviated the loop to the right or made an unnecessary deviation to the right. In our opinion, these and other errors are associated not only with the fragility of the formation of calligraphic skills in primary schoolchildren, but primarily with the fact that the experimental group is a speech therapy correction class.

We took this and much more into account when compiling exercises for the formative part of the experiment.

Formative stage of the experiment was conducted in 3 "A" class and took about 5 minutes in Russian language lessons. The purpose of this stage was to introduce a system of exercises aimed at correcting already formed calligraphic skills, i.e. check its effectiveness. The system of teaching writing developed by E.N. was adopted as a basis. Potapova. We distributed the material as follows.

The purpose of this block was to develop the muscular memory of younger schoolchildren. Here we used exercises that developed the small muscles of the fingers and hand. The main place in such work was occupied by shading, which strengthened not only the small muscles of the fingers and hand, but also developed the child’s internal and external speech, his logical thinking. The work consisted of several stages.

Stage 1: Students put a stencil on a sheet of album (in the first stages - a stencil with geometric shapes, in subsequent stages - stencils with images of objects and animal figures) and trace familiar figures with a simple pencil.

Stage 2: Students remove the stencil and divide the resulting figure into
parallel segments (strokes). Here, first of all, they worked out
strokes: parallel segments from top to bottom, bottom to top, left to right.
The distance between the segments (stroke) should be the width
lowercase letter.

Stage 3: Hatching of figures, including elements of letters. On this
stage, shading is carried out with felt-tip pens and the figures are represented
are complex structures.

When implementing this block, we pursued the following goal - the development of tactile memory, i.e. creating in the child’s memory an image of an uppercase (lowercase) and lowercase letter and their connections. In addition to tactile information, students received both visual and auditory information, and the children developed a sense of language and spelling vigilance. Students were provided with 33 letter cards (capital: 60x70mm and lowercase: 35x30mm) cut out of sandpaper and glued onto the card. The work included the following stages:

Stage 1: Children with the index finger of their right hand (later
with all fingers) feel the letter in the direction of writing. Moving your finger
by letter, the child seems to feel its outline, remembers the pattern of the letter,
its difference from other letters, the elements of the letter, the direction of the letter.

Stage 2: Students control their “walking” along the letter, as well as
neighbor, which helps you see the mistakes not only of your own, but also of your friend and
avoid them.

An indicator of proficiency is considered to be the error-free tracing of a letter, taking into account the sequential writing of all its elements.

The purpose of this block is to consolidate the information received. While working on this block, students consolidated the skills they developed in the first two blocks. Here we controlled the correct inclination of the letters and consolidated the acquired skills: writing direction, writing a letter and its elements.

The work was considered completed if the students could write the letter correctly and calligraphically correctly.

At the control stage of the study, we conducted a control section, based on the results of which we could judge the effectiveness of the implemented system of calligraphic exercises. The main attention, as in the first stage of the study, was paid to the students’ correct writing of the eight basic elements of letters. The following tasks for the control stage were compiled.

Analyze students’ ability to write exercises correctly in calligraphy. An indicator of correct spelling was clear and calligraphically correct writing.

1. Nature generously endowed the earth with flowers.

2. The audience admired the skaters.

3. A small bird is hovering over the river in a frosty haze.

4. The Russian family loves to sit by the samovar.

5. An impenetrable snowstorm hid the path deeply under the snow.

The work is considered completed if the student has written down the sentences in clear and beautiful handwriting.

Analysis of students' notebooks for the presence and absence of calligraphic errors when writing. Classification of errors in accordance with a compiled table, the basis of which is the correct spelling of the main elements of letters. Analysis of the results of the control section shows that we were able to improve the calligraphy of students in grade 3 “A” by an average of 15%, compared to grade 3 “B” (control group).

Analysis of the results of the control section is reflected in Table 2:

Table 2.

Thus, in the experimental group, as we expected, with additional work to improve already formed calligraphic skills, changes are observed. In the control group, results remained the same or worsened (See Table 3).

Table 3. Results of the ascertaining and control stages of the experiment.

Skills and abilities	Ascertaining stage				Control stage
	Experimental group		Control group		Experimental group		Control group
	Number of students	%	Number of students	%	Number of students	%	Number of students	%
1. short line	13	43,3	7	23,3	9	30	8	26,7
2. long line	10	33,3	9	30	5	16,7	7	23,3
3. line with a curve at the bottom	18	60	15	50	12	40	15	50
4. straight with loop	24	80	16	53,3	20	66,7	18	60
	25	83,3	20	66,7	19	63,3	21	70
6. semi-oval	14	46,7	5	13,3	10	33,3	4	13,3
7. line with a curve on both sides	11	36,7	6	16,7	6	20	5	16,7
8. small loop	26	86,7	26	80	20	66,7	24	80

Consequently, developing calligraphic handwriting is quite labor-intensive work. This work is primarily related to the psychophysical characteristics of children, our experimental group is a clear confirmation of this, since previously the class was a speech therapy group, as a result of which the problems of oral speech transferred to written speech. Thus, a clearly structured and methodologically sound system of exercises is needed, which we tried to implement during the formative stage of the experiment.

Chapter Conclusions II

“Copybooks” help the teacher to develop students’ calligraphy skills. The variety of work they contain relieves stress and allows students to focus on writing letter elements rather than their own literacy stress.

The teaching methodology has a rich arsenal of techniques for teaching writing. Both the implementation and effectiveness of the above techniques when teaching children calligraphic writing depends on the knowledge of the teacher and his skill, as well as on taking into account the individual approach to each of the children.

Of course, you can help children improve their handwriting. However, it should be remembered that children's graphology is a delicate science that requires the experience of a teacher, and whenever retraining a child, changing his handwriting, one must be extremely careful. But the most important thing is the fact that it is necessary to convince the child that he can write more beautifully and aesthetically, as well as maintaining hygienic conditions. An important condition for improving calligraphic skills is the causes of calligraphic errors and methods for eliminating them.

An analysis of the state of work in the field of calligraphy convinced us of the need to draw up an experimental training program, which we tested in the educational process.

CONCLUSION

Currently, in the Russian language methodology, the most pressing problem is teaching primary schoolchildren calligraphically correct writing. The relevance of this problem is primarily due to the fact that in recent decades, the majority of younger schoolchildren spend time on computers rather than on books and notebooks. Students do not develop hand motor skills and do not know how to coordinate their movements when writing. But writing for children entering school is a very complex process that requires continuous, intense control and writing training. All these difficulties are of both physiological, psychological and methodological nature.

When a child enters school, his lifestyle changes dramatically, and the success of his education largely depends on his readiness for new learning loads. Therefore, when teaching children to write, the individual psychological characteristics of each student must be taken into account.

A teacher in his activities must use not one, but a complex of methods, such as: linear, genetic, tactical, etc.; not one, but several of the most effective techniques: copying method, imaginary writing, letter shape analysis, counting writing and others. No less important is to establish the reasons why calligraphic errors were made, as well as taking into account the sanitary and hygienic conditions under which students wrote.

Thus, the hypothesis of our thesis research was confirmed during the experiment, where we took into account all the above conditions and provisions.

Consequently, a large role in the formation of calligraphic skills belongs to the system of working techniques, as well as the skill and knowledge of the teacher.

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This article discusses the formation of calligraphy skills of students in elementary school
This article examines the formation of the calligraphic skills of Junior pupils with impaired handwriting

Key words: handwriting, violation, calligraphy, calligraphic skills, junior schoolchild
Key words: handwriting, violation, calligraphy, calligraphic skills, younger student

One of the childhood memories that every modern adult has from elementary school is “minutes of penmanship.” Until now, some schools practice penmanship lessons in order to teach children beautiful handwriting.

The word “calligraphy” came to us from ancient times. Even in ancient Greek, it was formed from two words translated into Russian as “beauty” and “I write.”

This term refers to the ability to write clearly, beautifully, and legibly by hand, based on available writing samples.

For calligraphic handwriting, it is important to follow the rules of the line, maintain even margins on both the right and left sides of the page, adhere to the same size and slope for letters (and the slope is regulated and equal to 65 degrees), draw each letter correctly and connect the letters correctly.

A person only masters calligraphy if his handwriting has already been formed, he writes quickly and coherently, while the speed of writing does not affect its legibility and slant. If a person violates proportions, changes the inclination of letters, or does not apply the rules for writing certain elements, then it is considered that he makes calligraphic errors.

Today, the issue of teaching calligraphy to junior schoolchildren is very relevant. After all, modern scientific and technological progress and the rapid development of the world information field poses an obligatory task for a person to engage in self-education.

Therefore, a person has a need to write not just legibly, but also quickly, while maintaining calligraphic handwriting. It is in elementary school that the foundations of a person’s handwriting are laid, so at this age you should immediately begin to write correctly. In the works of modern methodologists K.D. Ushinsky, V.A. Ilyukhina, L.S. Vygotsky and others have scientific recommendations for solving this problem.

Today, most people do not have calligraphy skills. What has happened to handwriting in recent decades? Why did people start making so many mistakes? Why in junior classes Is it increasingly difficult to teach calligraphy to children? These questions concern many teachers. Every year we see an increase in the number of children who have difficulties learning to write. Up to 30 percent of children have long-term problems learning to write.

Today, teaching calligraphic handwriting is considered one of the main problems of school education. This problem is studied by many scientists and methodologists. The formation of correct writing today is considered from different points of view. For example, the “Letter with a Secret” program involves the formation of muscle memory.

Why does this question bother so many people? Because there are significant problems associated with poor calligraphy in children. If a child is careless about the legibility of his handwriting, then this carelessness extends to the mastery of spelling. It is difficult for the examiner to determine which letters are in the text. A person who writes in poor handwriting often gets the false impression that he is illiterate and careless in life. Computerization in education leaves its mark, as children spend less time writing, which prevents them from mastering calligraphic writing skills.

The most common problems in writing words are difficulties in mastering the letter form, methods of connecting letters, and the slope of the line. Due to the fact that exercises are carried out less frequently than before, all these skills are lost.

But there are even more serious signs of this problem - the process of developing writing skills is influenced not only by physical difficulties, but also by psychological characteristics of the individual.

According to E.M. Gurova, you need to highlight individual elements of calligraphic handwriting and practice each of them. At the same time, you need to teach children to write to the beat or on command.

There is a strong belief, based on facts, that if you adhere to a strict rhythm, you can easily master fast and at the same time beautiful handwriting.

Exercises in writing to the beat allow you not only to write correctly, but also help children pay attention (after all, you need to understand and write what the teacher says the first time). It also allows you to train your memory and develop the ability to persevere. The individual elements that Ilyukhina writes about must be written without interruption.

Another tip that V.A. Ilyukhina offers is to pronounce each letter when writing it. Children easily learn the main elements that occur most often.
Each lesson covers a new letter. At the same time, already in the second half of September, children are sent on an “independent search.” Children are not always able to give a detailed answer to various questions from the teacher. But at the same time, children's speech is often heard in lessons.

Children independently comment on their spelling of a letter or word. They pronounce each element as they write it. In this case, the letter goes without leaving the paper.

It has long been proven and tested in practice that with tactical (also called rhythmic) writing under counting, children master penmanship much better.
N.G. Agarkova offers her own system, which applies the principles of rhythmic writing. Such writing becomes clearer and smoother. And rhythm while writing letters significantly speeds up the pace without compromising the quality of writing. This correction method allows you to improve the grapho-motor component in children, who have their own motor characteristics.

The clocked letter is entered in three stages.

At the first stage, children complete the following tasks: they trace letters on specially prepared samples using tracing paper. The exercise is performed counting.

At the next stage, children use tracing paper to trace not letters, but words that are combined into groups. Each group contains words that have similar rhythmic structures and similar stresses.

The third stage is characterized by the fact that children also begin to trace entire sentences using tracing paper. Poems and even short texts are also gradually being introduced.

A workbook has been published for the successful completion of all these exercises. With its help, children in primary school form the grapho-motor element of writing. Classes using this notebook are conducted in primary school classes.

There are also effective alternative methods for teaching beautiful writing. Let us discuss in more detail the methodology proposed by N.G. Agarkova.

According to N.G. Agarkova, classes on teaching beautiful and legible handwriting should be based on the principles that are used in Russian graphics. It is important to conduct regular classes, with the help of which children bring the actions of writing letters to automaticity.

The principles that N.G. writes about. Agarkov, the following:

• letters need to be learned element by element;
• it is important to achieve stable single-variant spelling of the letter;
• letter characters must be logically grouped.

Element-by-element mastery of letters is manifested in the fact that before starting to draw a letter, it is necessary to form a visual image of it in the child’s memory so that he clearly understands from which individual elements a given letter is built. He must also remember well what relationships exist between these elements. The letter is reproduced element by element, but now motor elements are already involved. As a result, a stable letter image is formed in the students’ minds. This will create a solid foundation for the formation of good calligraphic handwriting.

Consistent writing of different letters is achieved by observing the patterns of correct hand movements in the process of writing text on paper. These are circular movements that are closed and directed inward towards the shoulder. As a rule, the hand makes the same movements when writing different letters.

If you logically group different letters, then you can quickly enough, after studying individual letters, form clear images of each letter in the minds of students, and this will allow you to avoid frequent graphic errors when writing quickly. As a result, a solid foundation is laid for the formation of the ability to write automatically in calligraphic handwriting.

The principles that we described in this article can be implemented using the element-by-element method. It is based on features associated with the age of six to seven years and the psychological development of children of this age. This principle does not interfere with the development of coherent writing. On the contrary, we believe that it allows us to reveal it more deeply.

The technique is based on two categories of letter images. These are visual images of letters and motor images of letters. Visual images are based on the patterns of perception through vision. Motor images are based on patterns of movements during the writing process.

Thematic literature, especially the works of E.N. Potapova, V.A. Ilyukhina and others, offers various techniques. For example, one technique is based on the copy writing method. The other is based on a genetic approach.

There are also rhythmic techniques, font techniques that were developed by N.G. Agarkova. ON THE. Fedosov allows you not only to acquire calligraphic handwriting, but also to develop fine motor skills, form different types of memory. Particular attention should be paid to the recommendations of V.A. Ilyukhina. She offers a technique that works effectively until the end of school.

Thus, we can draw the following conclusions:

1. Each method considered is based on principles and approaches that have reliable historical recommendations;
2. These techniques allow students to consciously master calligraphic handwriting;
3. Modern educational technologies develop not only the ability to write, but also other important qualities of the child;
4. The methods also take into account the psychological and physical characteristics of primary school students.