ANATOMO-PHYSIOLOGICAL
FEATURES OF THE GASTROINAL TRACT
CHILDREN

The digestive system presents
a complex digestive
conveyor, from the well-coordinated work of which
depends largely on the state
child and his health
Age-related changes in the structure
digestive system and its
functions are inextricably linked with
features of life
organism at each stage
ontogenesis, with energy and
plastic needs. with
nutritional features

Digestive system functions

Digestion and absorption of nutrients
Motor and transport-evacuation
Secretory and excretory, regulating
homeostasis of the enteric environment and the whole organism
Endogenous digestion and disposal
endogenous substances due to hydrolysis and
absorption of endogenous substrates and metabolites
Metabolic (transformation and biosynthesis
substances from endogenous and exogenous substrates)
Protective (epithelial and mucous
barriers, immune system, etc.)
Regulatory through
substrate, nervous and endocrine
regulation

7-8 days - the formation of a closed tube (primary intestine) from the endoderm; 12 days - the division of the primary intestine into the intraembryonic part (digestive

Digestive embryogenesis
path
7-8 days the formation of a closed tube (primary
intestine) from endoderm
12 day division of the primary intestine into
the intra-embryonic part (digestive tract) and
extraembryonic (yolk sac)
3 weeks -
melting of the oropharyngeal membrane
4 weeks -
education of various departments
anterior intestine - pharynx, esophagus, stomach, part 12 duodenal
intestines, liver, pancreas
middle intestine - part of the duodenum, jejunum and ileum
hind gut - all parts of the colon
3 months
expansion of the cloacal membrane

Oral cavity

Features of the oral cavity in children

In newborns, the oral cavity is relatively
small
Alveolar processes are poorly expressed
The vault of the hard palate is poorly expressed
The language is relatively large
Chewing muscles are well developed
There are lumps of Bisha in the thickness of the cheeks.
The epithelium is tender and somewhat
dryness, tendency to candidiasis (pH neutr)
The mucous membrane is bright, abundantly vascularized
Along the midline in the hard sky are visible
white-yellow dots, so-called Bon nodules
A dense
roller (Robin-Magito fold)
The visible part of the mucous membrane of the lips has
transverse striation (ridges
Pfoundler-Lyushka)

Oral cavity of a newborn

Features of salivation in children

Salivary glands of the newborn morphologically
formed
In the first 3 months, saliva secretion is low, the main
role is to ensure the tightness of the oral cavity
By 4-5 months, there is abundant
salivation due to insufficient
maturity of central regulatory mechanisms
salivation and swallowing
Amylase activity is low, the maximum is reached by the age of 27
pH of saliva in children 7.32, in adults-6.4
In bottle-fed babies and after
introduction of complementary foods the main functions of saliva digestion of carbohydrates and the formation of food
lump
Newborn saliva is also powerful
factor of cytoprotection and contains components
non-specific protection
(lysozyme, prostaglandins, lactic acid, etc.)

Esophagus
Segments
esophagus
1-tracheal, 2-aortic, 3-inter-aortic, 4-bronchial, 5-subbronchial, 6-retropericardial, 7-supraphrenic, 8-diaphragmatic, 9-abdominal

FEATURES OF THE OESOPHAGUS IN CHILDREN

The lumen of the esophagus is formed from 3-4 months
intrauterine life
The entrance to the esophagus in a newborn is located on
disk level between the third and fourth
cervical vertebrae and gradually with age
going down
Anatomical narrowing of the esophagus in children
the first year are poorly expressed
The diameter of the newborn's esophagus is 5
mm., at 6 months-8-10mm., at 1 year-12 mm., at 15 years-1819mm.
The transition of the esophagus to the stomach at all periods
childhood is located at the level of the tenth to eleventh thoracic vertebrae

The structure of the stomach of an adult

Newborn stomach

Features of the stomach in children

Physiological volume of the stomach
newborn -7 ml., for 4 days-40-50 ml., for
10 days-80ml., 1 year-250ml., 3years-400600ml., 10years-1500ml.
A newborn has a poorly developed bottom and
cardiac stomach, final
which is formed by the age of 8
The entrance of the stomach is located above
the diaphragm and is located in the chest cavity
The newborn has a well-developed pyloric
stomach
The stomach of the newborn is oblique
frontal plane, its bottom in position
lying is below the anthro-pyloric
department

The mucous membrane of the stomach is relatively thicker
Gastric glands of a newborn
functionally and morphologically not
developed, the number of glands per 1 kg. body weight at 2.5
times less than that of an adult
Gastric secretion in a newborn is low,
intragastric pH not lower than 4. By 1 year pH
decreases to 1.5-2.
Neurohumoral regulation of the gastric
secretion begins from 1 month of life, up to two
months, the source of hydrogen ions is
lactic acid and only later hydrochloric
Among proteolytic enzymes,
the action of renin (chymosin) and gastrixin
High gastric activity
lipase, hydrolyzing fats in neutral
environment without the presence of bile acids In the stomach
a third of the fat in human milk is hydrolyzed.

The histological picture of the normal mucous membrane of the child's stomach

Pancreas

Pancreas secret
Proteinases (trypsinogen, chymotrypsinogen
A, B and C, carboxypeptidases A and B, proelastase
and phospholipase A zymogen.
Lipase
Amylase
Mucin
Bicarbonates providing pH = 6.8-8

Features of the pancreas in children

In newborns and children in the first months of life
insufficient differentiation of the gland
There is abundant vascularization, little
connective tissue
The mass of the gland at birth is 3 g, the most
intensive development and growth, from 6 months. up to 2 years 5-10
years-weight 30-35g., 15 years-50g.
Proteolytic activity in the newborn
high, increases to a maximum by 4-6 years
Lipolytic activity increases by 1 year and
remains high up to 9 years
Amylolytic activity from birth to 1 year
increases by 4 times, maximum at 6-9 years
Enzyme activity is adaptive
character; with breastfeeding their
concentration is low, when mixed, it increases in
1.5-2 times, with artificial - 4-5 times.

Liver

Features of the liver and biliary tract in children

The liver of a newborn takes up from a third to
half the volume of the abdominal cavity, its mass
makes up 4.38% of body weight
The left lobe of the liver at birth is very massive, by 18
month its relative size decreases
The growth rate of the child's liver lags behind the body weight: to
At the age of 16, the mass of the liver increases 10 times, the mass of
20 times
In children under 5-7 years old, the edge of the liver is normally palpated from
under the costal arch, and up to 2-3 years, by 2-3 cm.
Lobules of the liver are not clearly demarcated, the final
their differentiation ends by 1 month. life
Fibrous capsule of the liver in newborns
thin, there are delicate collagen and thin
elastic fibers
The liver of a newborn contains more
water, less protein, fat and glycogen, at the same time in
the first three months increased "glycogen capacity"

LIVER FUNCTIONS
1. Biosynthesis of substances functioning and
used in other bodies:
- blood plasma proteins
- glucose
- fats
- ketone bodies, etc.
2. Biosynthesis of urea as a final product
nitrogen exchange in the body
3. Digestive function associated with synthesis
acids, formation and secretion of bile
4. Neutralization of toxic substances,
formed in the body and coming from outside
5. Isolation of some metabolic products from
bile into the intestines (excess cholesterol, food
decay of heme - bile pigments, etc.
metabolites resulting from
neutralization of substances in the liver

The gallbladder in a newborn is hidden
liver
Its length at the age of 2-7 years is no more than 2.5-4cm.
8-12 years old-5cm
13-15years-7cm.
The maximum width is 3 cm.
Newborn babies are predisposed
to cholestasis due to:
immaturity of the enzymatic systems of the liver
decreased transport of bile acids
insufficient synthesis of bile acids
dominance of cholestatic fractions
bile acids (taurocholic acid)

Conjugative jaundice of newborns
(physiological)
-
physiological hemolysis
insufficient activity of glucuronyl transferase
low activity and lack of synthesis
transport protein in newborns
- develops on the 2nd day
- max for 4-5 days
- disappears by 7-10 days
- in premature babies - up to 4 weeks
Jaundice in newborns with bilirubin levels
> 68.4 - 85.5 μmol / L
in children over 1 year old> 20.5 - 34.2 μmol / l
Bilirubin encephalopathy in prematurity
at a bilirubin level> 205 μmol / l

Small intestine

The child is 1 year old
the length of the small intestine in 2
times less than
adult (1.2-2.8m.)
For 1 kg of body weight
newborn
there is 1m of the intestine,
adult-10 cm.
Surface area
small intestine
newborns - 85cm²., at
adults-3.3 · 10³cm²
Surface area
small intestine
increases due to
circular
folds, villi and
microvilli.

Intestines

In the third month of intrauterine development
bowel turn occurs
Yolk sac reduction
different (Meckel diverticulum)
At birth, the length of the intestine is relatively longer than
in older children and adults

Circular folds in a newborn are pronounced
only in the initial part of the ileum
The length of the duodenum 12 is 7.5-10 cm.,
adult-24-30 cm.
Intestinal loops are more compact
Weakness is noted in children under 1 year of age.
ileocecal valve
In young children, a longer mesentery
The mucous membrane is thin, abundant
vascularized, highly permeable
Epithelial cells are rapidly renewing
Intestinal glands are larger than those of
adults, lymphoid tissue is scattered throughout
intestine, later grouped into the ileum
gut

Food conveyor stages

The main link in the digestion of a young child is
parietal, membrane digestion carried out by our own
enterocyte enzymes and enzymes
pancreatic, salivary, gastric epithelium, absorbed
different layers of glycocalyx
The activity of intestinal enzymes in a child is high
Intracellular digestion is better expressed

Own enzymes of the small intestine mucosa

Glycosidases: Maltase-glucoamylase
Sugar isomaltase
Lactase Florising Hydrolase
Trehalase
Peptidase Aminopeptidase A
Aminopeptidase N
Aminopeptidase W
Carboxypeptidase P
Dipeptidyl aminopeptidase IV
Peptidyl dipeptidase
Pteroyl polyglutamate hydrolase
Enteropeptidase
Enteropeptidase 24.11
Endopeptidase-2
γ-glutamyl transferase
Phosphatase Alkaline Phosphatase
Phosphodiesterase 1
unknown function 140kDa - glycoprotein
Guanylate cyclase regulators
Phospholipase A

Absorption of nutrients in the small intestine

In the early days, weeks and
months of a child's life
all parts of the small intestine
have a high
hydrolytic and
absorption
activity and only
later formed
predominance
proximal
in absorption
nutrients

Colon

Colon development is not complete at birth
Ribbons are barely visible, gaustra are absent up to 6 months
Up to 4 years of age, the ascending colon is longer than the descending
The mesentery is mobile, only 2% of newborns are fixed
The sigmoid colon is longer, more mobile and located higher

Features of the rectum in children

In young children
the rectum is long, with
filling may take
small pelvis
Final position
the rectum takes 2
years
The ampoule of the rectum is not
developed
Anal pillars and
sinuses are not formed
Fatty tissue is not
developed, the intestine is poor
fixed
The submucosal layer is good
developed
The muscle layer is poorly developed

Colon Functions in Children

Motor function in children
early age is unstable
Evacuation tank
reduced (young children
do not control the act of defecation)
Water resorption
Digestive (normal
microflora takes part
in digestion by fermenting
lactose)
Other intestinal functions
microflora (immunological,
protective, trophic, synthesis
vitamins, participation in circulation
bile acids, inactivation
physiologically active
substances and enzymes.

The composition of the intestinal microflora in children

The composition of the microflora of the gastrointestinal tract in children

Gastrointestinal motility in children

Normal stool frequency in children:
first months of life - up to 7 times a day
first years of life - 2-3 times a day
preschoolers - 1-2 times a day
schoolchildren - the interval between bowel movements is 32-48 hours
CONSTITUTION (constipation) - violation of self-emptying of the intestine
- slow, difficult, insufficient
Rome II 1998 Constipation - 2 signs and> of 4
severe straining during bowel movements
- feeling of incomplete bowel movement
- allocation of hard and dry feces
- the number of bowel movements is less than 3 per week
Diarrhea - frequent bowel movements
with a high water content in feces
In young children, diarrhea:
- stool volume> 15 g / kg per day
3 years and older:
- stool volume> 200 g per day
- frequency> 2 times a day
Diarrhea with polyfecal matter:
- stool volume> 2% of food and liquids eaten

The main components of the immune system of the gastrointestinal tract

Some common features of the digestive system
There is a great variety of individual
morphofunctional variants of the structure and
organization of work of individual elements of the system
There is excess capacity of many elements (in
in the midst of digestion, no more than a third
total pool of enterocytic enzymes)
Regulation mechanisms are presented and many times
duplicated at the level
nervous, hormonal, substrate regulation and
able to work offline
There is a morphological and functional dependence
various elements of the system, which creates a stock
durability and provides adaptation when turned off
certain departments
The system operates continuously and has
circadian rhythmic activity
The normal functioning of the digestive tract depends
from a sufficient intake of nutrients from
blood. as well as substrates from the enteric environment

The child's digestive system is in development and in general
characterized by:
relatively large compared to adults
individual segments of the digestive tube in relation to
body surface
richness of vascularization of the mucous membrane, its increased
permeability, high rates of regeneration
insufficient development of muscle and elastic tissue
less pronounced connection of its own layer of the mucous membrane and
submucosal layer, lack of fixing the intestines
elements (muscular-ligamentous structures)
A significant decrease in gastric digestion and activity
enzymes of cavity digestion, displacement of the maximum
the level of secretion of the digestive glands in the direction
distal gastrointestinal tract
good adaptation of secretory structures to food composition
partial hydrolysis of proteins, fats and carbohydrates due to
enzymes of human milk
significant specific gravity of intracellular digestion
the predominance of vagal influences on intestinal motor function
immaturity of local defense systems, both specific and
non-specific

afho of the gastrointestinal tract in children

The establishment of the organization of digestion occurs at an early stage of embryonic development. Already by 7-8 days from the endoderm → primary intestine, from which 2 parts are formed on the 12th day: intra-embryonic(future digestive tract), extraembryonic(yolk sac).

From the 4th week of embryogenesis, the formation of various departments begins:

from the anterior gut the pharynx, esophagus, stomach and part of the duodenum with rudiments of the pancreas and liver develop;

from the midgut part of the duodenum, jejunum and ileum is formed;

from the back- all parts of the colon develop.

afo

Oral cavity has features that ensure the act of sucking:

relatively small volume of the oral cavity;

big tongue;

good development of the muscles of the mouth and cheeks;

roller-like duplications of the gingival mucosa;

fatty bodies (lumps of Besh);

The salivary glands are underdeveloped.

Esophagus formed for birth. The entrance to the esophagus in a newborn is at the level between the III and IV cervical vertebrae, at the age of 12 - at the level of the VI-VII vertebrae. Funnel-shaped. The length of the esophagus increases with age. Anatomical narrowing is poorly expressed.

The transition of the esophagus to the stomach during all periods of childhood at the level of the X-XI thoracic vertebrae.

Stomach in infants, it is located horizontally. As the child begins to walk, the axis of the stomach becomes vertical.

newborns have poor fundus and cardiac development

the cardiac sphincter is very poorly developed, and the pyloric sphincter functions satisfactorily  tendency to regurgitate;

there are few glands in the mucous membrane  the secretory apparatus is underdeveloped and its functional abilities are low;

the composition of the gastric juice is the same, but the acidic and enzymatic activity is lower;

the main enzyme of gastric juice is chymosin (rennet), which ensures milk curdling;

there is little lipase and its low activity;

the timing of evacuation of food from the stomach depends on the type of feeding;

gastrointestinal motility is slowed down, peristalsis is sluggish;

the physiological volume is less than the anatomical capacity and is 7 ml at birth. On the 4th day - 40-50 ml, by the 10th day - up to 80 ml. By the end of 1 year - 250 ml, by 3 years - 400-600 ml. At the age of 4-7 years, the capacity of the stomach increases slowly, by the age of 10-12 it is 1300-1500 ml.

With the onset of enteral nutrition, the number of gastric glands begins to increase rapidly. If a fetus has 150-200 thousand glands per 1 kg of body weight, a 15-year-old has 18 million.

Pancreas pancreas is not completely formed at birth;

at birth, weight  3 g, in an adult 30 times more. The gland grows most intensively in the first 3 years and in puberty.

at an early age, the surface of the gland is smooth, and by the age of 10-12, tuberosity appears, which is due to the allocation of the boundaries of the lobules. In newborns, the head of the pancreas is most developed;

trypsin, chymotrypsin begins to be secreted in utero; from 12 weeks - lipase, phospholipase A; amylase only after birth;

the secretory activity of the gland reaches the level of secretion of adults by the age of 5;

Liver the parenchyma is poorly differentiated;

lobulation is detected only by 1 year;

by the age of 8, the morphological and histological structure of the liver is the same as in adults;

insolvent enzymatic system;

at birth, the liver is one of the largest organs (1/3 - 1/2 of the volume of the abdominal cavity, and mass = 4.38% of the total mass); the left lobe is very massive, which is explained by the peculiarities of the blood supply;

the fibrous capsule is thin, there are delicate collagen and elastic fibers;

in children 5-7 years old, the lower edge protrudes from under the edge of the right costal arch by 2-3 cm;

a newborn has more water in the liver, at the same time there is less protein, fat, glycogen;

there are age-related changes in the microstructure of liver cells:

in children, 1.5% of hepatocytes have 2 nuclei (in adults - 8.3%);

the granular reticulum of the hepatocyte is less developed;

many free-lying ribosomes in the endoplasmic reticulum of the hepatocyte;

glycogen is found in the hepatocyte, the amount of which increases with age.

Gall bladder in a newborn, it is hidden by the liver, has a fusiform shape  3 cm. Bile differs in composition: poor in cholesterol; bile acids, the content of bile acids in hepatic bile in children aged 4-10 years is less than in children of the first year of life. At the age of 20, their content again reaches the previous level; salts; rich in water, mucin, pigments. With age, the ratio of glycocholic and taurocholic acids changes: an increase in the concentration of taurocholic acid increases the bactericidal capacity of bile. Bile acids in the hepatocyte are synthesized from cholesterol.

Intestines relatively longer in relation to body length (in a newborn 8.3: 1; in an adult 5.4: 1). In young children, in addition, the intestinal loops are more compact, because the small pelvis is not developed.

in young children, there is a relative weakness of the ileocecal valve, and therefore the contents of the cecum, the richest in bacterial flora, can be thrown into the ileum;

due to weak fixation of the rectal mucosa in children, its prolapse can often occur;

the mesentery is longer and more easily extensible  slightly = torsion, intussusception;

short omentum  spilled peritonitis;

the structural features of the intestinal wall and its large area determine a higher absorption capacity and, at the same time, an insufficient barrier function due to the high permeability of the mucous membrane for toxins and microbes;

In children of all ages, the maltase activity of the mucous membrane of the small intestine is high, while its sucrase activity is much lower. The lactase activity of the mucous membrane, noted in the first year of life, gradually decreases with age, remaining at a minimum level in an adult. Disaccharidase activity in older children is most pronounced in the proximal small intestine, where monosaccharides are mainly absorbed.

In children over 1 year old, as in adults, protein hydrolysis products are absorbed mainly in the jejunum. Fats begin to be absorbed in the proximal ileum.

Vitamins and minerals are absorbed in the small intestine. Its proximal sections are the main site of nutrient absorption. The ileum is the reserve absorption zone.

The length of the large intestine in children of different ages is equal to the length of the child's body. By 3-4 years of age, the structure of the large intestine sections of a child becomes similar to the anatomy of the corresponding sections of the intestine of an adult.

The secretion of juice by the glands of the large intestine in children is poorly expressed, but it sharply increases with mechanical irritation of the mucous membrane.

motor activity is very energetic (increased frequency of the act of defecation).

All enzymes are born membrane digestion, have high activity, topography of enzymatic activity throughout the small intestine or distal shift, which reduces the reserve capacity of membrane digestion. In the same time intracellular digestion, carried out by pinocytosis in children of the 1st year of life, is much better expressed.

Transient dysbiosis runs independently from the 4th day

in 60-70% - pathogenetic staphylococcus

in 30-50% - enterobacterial, Candida

10-15% - Proteus

Excreta:

Meconium (intestinal contents, I. Aseptic (sterile) phase.

accumulated before childbirth and before II. Flora colonization phase (dysbacteri

first attachment to the chest; oz coincides with toxic erytherma).

consists of intestinal cells III. The phase of displacement of the bifidobacus flora

epithelium, amniotic fluid). terium.

Transitional stool (after day 3)

Newborn stool (from the 5th day

birth).

Features of digestion in children

At birth, the salivary glands are formed, but the secretory function is low for 2-3 months. -Amylase of saliva is low. By 4-5 months, profuse salivation is observed.

By the end of the 1st year, hydrochloric acid appears in the gastric juice. Among proteolytic enzymes, the predominant action is renin (chymosin) and gastrixin. Relatively high activity of gastric lipase.

At birth, the endocrine function of the pancreas is immature. Pancreatic secretion rapidly increases after the introduction of complementary foods (with artificial feeding, the functional maturation of the gland is ahead of that with natural). Especially low amylolytic activity.

Liver relatively large at birth, but functionally immature. The release of bile acids is small, at the same time, the liver of a child in the first months of life has a greater "glycogen capacity".

Intestines in newborns, it seems to compensate for the insufficiency of those organs that provide distant digestion. Special meaning acquires membrane digestion, whose enzymes are highly active. The topography of enzymatic activity throughout the small intestine in newborns has a distal shift, which reduces the reserve capacity of membrane digestion. In the same time intracellular digestion, carried out by pinocytosis, in children of the 1st year is much better expressed than at an older age.

During the 1st year of life, there is a rapid development distant digestion, the value of which is increasing every year.

Disaccharides (sucrose, maltose, isomaltose), like lactose, undergo hydrolysis in the small intestine by the corresponding disaccharidases.

In the extrauterine period, the gastrointestinal tract is the only source of nutrients and water needed both to maintain life and for the growth and development of the fetus.

Features of the digestive system in children

Anatomical and physiological features of the digestive system

Young children (especially newborns) have a number of morphological features common to all parts of the gastrointestinal tract:

• thin, delicate, dry, easily injured mucous membrane;
• richly vascularized submucosal layer, consisting mainly of loose fiber;
• insufficiently developed elastic and muscle tissue;
• low secretory function of glandular tissue, which separates a small amount of digestive juices with a low content of enzymes.

These features of the digestive system make it difficult to digest food, if the latter does not correspond to the age of the child, reduce the barrier function of the gastrointestinal tract and lead to frequent diseases, create the prerequisites for a general systemic response to any pathological effect and require very careful and thorough care of the mucous membranes.

Oral cavity in a child

In a newborn and a child in the first months of life, the oral cavity has a number of features that ensure the act of sucking. These include: a relatively small volume of the oral cavity and a large tongue, good development of the muscles of the mouth and cheeks, roller-like duplicates of the mucous membrane of the gums and transverse folds on the mucous membrane of the lips, fatty bodies (Bisha's lumps) in the thickness of the cheeks, characterized by significant elasticity due to the predominance in them solid fatty acids... The salivary glands are underdeveloped. However, insufficient salivation is mainly due to the immaturity of the nerve centers that regulate it. As they mature, the amount of saliva increases, and therefore, at 3-4 months of age, the child often develops the so-called physiological salivation due to the not yet developed automatism of swallowing it.

In newborns and infants, the oral cavity is relatively small. The lips of newborns are thick, there are transverse ridges on their inner surface. The orbicularis muscle of the mouth is well developed. The cheeks in newborns and young children are rounded and convex due to the presence of a rounded fatty body (Bisha's fatty lumps) between the skin and the well-developed buccal muscle, which subsequently, starting from the age of 4, gradually atrophies.

The hard palate is flat, its mucous membrane forms poorly expressed transverse folds, poor in glands. The soft palate is relatively short, almost horizontal. The palatine curtain does not touch the back of the pharynx, which allows the baby to breathe while sucking. With the appearance of milk teeth, a significant increase in the size of the alveolar processes of the jaws occurs, and the roof of the hard palate rises, as it were. The tongue in newborns is short, wide, thick and inactive; well-defined papillae are visible on the mucous membrane. The tongue occupies the entire oral cavity: when the mouth is closed, it comes into contact with the cheeks and the hard palate, protrudes forward between the jaws in the vestibule of the mouth.

Oral mucosa

The mucous membrane of the oral cavity in children, especially young children, is thin and easily vulnerable, which must be taken into account when treating the oral cavity. The mucous membrane of the floor of the oral cavity forms a noticeable fold, covered with a large number of villi. A bulge in the form of a roller is also present on the mucous membrane of the cheeks in the gap between the upper and lower jaws.In addition, there are transverse folds (rollers) on the hard palate, roller-like thickenings on the gums. All these formations ensure the sealing of the oral cavity during the sucking process. On the mucous membrane in the area of ​​the hard palate in the midline in newborns, Bon's nodules are located - yellowish formations - retention cysts of the salivary glands, disappearing by the end of the first month of life.

The mucous membrane of the oral cavity in children in the first 3-4 months of life is relatively dry, which is due to insufficient development of the salivary glands and saliva deficiency. The salivary glands (parotid, submandibular, sublingual, small glands of the oral mucosa) in a newborn are characterized by low secretory activity and secrete a very small amount of thick, viscous saliva, which is necessary for gluing the lips and sealing the oral cavity during sucking. The functional activity of the salivary glands begins to increase at the age of 1.52 months; in 34-month-old children, saliva often flows out of the mouth due to the immaturity of the regulation of salivation and swallowing of saliva (physiological salivation). The most intense growth and development of the salivary glands occurs between the ages of 4 months and 2 years. By the age of 7, a child produces the same amount of saliva as an adult. The reaction of saliva in newborns is often neutral or slightly acidic. From the first days of life, saliva contains osamylase and other enzymes necessary for the breakdown of starch and glycogen. In newborns, the concentration of amylase in saliva is low; during the first year of life, its content and activity increase significantly, reaching a maximum level at 2-7 years.

Pharynx and larynx in a child

The pharynx of a newborn has the shape of a funnel, its lower edge is projected at the level of the intervertebral disc between C And | and C 1 V. By adolescence, he falls to the level C vl -C VII. The larynx in infants is also funnel-shaped and located differently than in adults. The entrance to the larynx is located high above the lower posterior edge of the palatine curtain and is connected to the oral cavity. Food moves to the sides of the protruding larynx, so the baby can breathe and swallow at the same time without interrupting sucking.

Sucking and swallowing in a baby

Sucking and swallowing are congenital unconditioned reflexes. In healthy and mature newborns, they are already formed by the time of birth. When sucking, the baby's lips tightly grip the nipple of the breast. The jaws squeeze it, and the communication between the oral cavity and the outside air stops. Negative pressure is created in the child's oral cavity, which is facilitated by the lowering of the lower jaw along with the tongue down and back. Then breast milk enters the rarefied space of the mouth. All elements of the newborn's masticatory apparatus are adapted for the breast-sucking process: the gingival membrane, pronounced palatine transverse folds and fatty bodies in the cheeks. The physiological infant retrognathia, which later turns into orthognathia, also serves as an adaptation of the newborn's oral cavity to sucking. In the process of sucking, the baby makes rhythmic movements with the lower jaw from front to back. The absence of the articular tubercle facilitates the sagittal movements of the child's lower jaw.

Child's esophagus

The esophagus is a fusiform muscle tube lined with a mucous membrane from the inside. At birth, the esophagus is formed, its length in a newborn is 10-12 cm, at the age of 5 years - 16 cm, and at 15 years old - 19 cm.The ratio between the length of the esophagus and the length of the body remains relatively constant and is approximately 1: 5. The width of the esophagus in a newborn is 5-8 mm, at 1 year old - 10-12 mm, by 3-6 years - 13-15 mm and by 15 years - 18-19 mm. The size of the esophagus must be taken into account when fibro-eso-phago-gastroduodenoscopy (FEGDS), duodenal intubation and gastric lavage.

Anatomical narrowing of the esophagus in newborns and children of the first year of life is poorly expressed and forms with age. The wall of the esophagus in a newborn is thin, the muscular membrane is poorly developed, it grows intensively up to 12-15 years. The mucous membrane of the esophagus in infants is poor in glands. Longitudinal folds appear at the age of 2-2.5 years. The submucosa is well developed, rich in blood vessels.

Outside the act of swallowing, the passage of the pharynx into the esophagus is closed. Peristalsis of the esophagus occurs during swallowing movements.

The gastrointestinal tract and the size of the esophagus in children, depending on age.

During anesthesia and the process of intensive care, stomach sounding is often performed, so the anesthesiologist must know the age of the esophagus (table).

Table. The size of the esophagus in children, depending on age

In young children, there is a physiological weakness of the cardiac sphincter and, at the same time, good development of the muscular layer of the pylorus. All this predisposes to regurgitation and vomiting. This must be borne in mind when carrying out anesthesia, especially with the use of muscle relaxants, since in these cases regurgitation is possible - passive (and therefore late noticed) leakage of the contents of the stomach, which can lead to its aspiration and the development of severe aspiration pneumonia.

Stomach capacity increases in proportion to age up to 1-2 years. Further increase is associated not only with the growth of the body, but also with the characteristics of nutrition. The approximate values ​​of the stomach capacity in newborns and infants are presented in the table.

Table. Stomach capacity in young children

What is the size of the esophagus in children?

The indicated values ​​are very approximate, especially in conditions of pathology. For example, with obstruction of the upper gastrointestinal tract, the walls of the stomach can stretch, which leads to an increase in its capacity by 2-5 times.

The physiology of gastric secretion in children of different ages, in principle, does not differ from that in adults. The acidity of gastric juice may be slightly lower than in adults, but this often depends on the nature of the diet. The pH of gastric juice in infants is 3.8-5.8, in adults, in the midst of digestion, up to 1.5-2.0.

Stomach motility under normal conditions depends on the nature of the diet, as well as on neuroreflex impulses. High activity of the vagus nerve stimulates gastrospasm, and the splanchnic nerve stimulates the pyloric spasm.

The transit time of food (chyme) through the intestines in newborns is 4-18 hours, in older children - up to a day. Of this time, 7-8 hours are spent on passing through the small intestine and 2-14 hours on the large intestine. With artificial feeding of infants, the digestion time can be up to 48 hours.

Child's stomach

Features of the child's stomach

The stomach of a newborn has the shape of a cylinder, bovine horn or a fish hook and is located high (the inlet of the stomach is at level T VIII -T IX, and the gatekeeper's opening is at the level of T x1 -T x | 1). As the child grows and develops, the stomach sinks, and by the age of 7 years its inlet (with an upright body position) is projected between TX | and T X || , and the output is between T x || and L ,. In infants, the stomach is horizontal, but as soon as the child begins to walk, he gradually takes a more upright position.

The cardial part, the fundus and the pyloric part of the stomach in the newborn are poorly expressed, the pylorus is wide. The entrance of the stomach is often located above the diaphragm, the angle between the abdominal part of the esophagus and the adjacent wall of the fundus of the stomach is insufficiently expressed, the muscular membrane of the cardiac part of the stomach is also poorly developed. The Gubarev valve (a fold of the mucous membrane that protrudes into the esophageal cavity and prevents the return of food) is almost not pronounced (it develops by 8-9 months of life), the cardiac sphincter is functionally defective, while the pyloric stomach is functionally well developed at birth.

These features determine the possibility of throwing the contents of the stomach into the esophagus and the development of peptic lesions of its mucous membrane. In addition, the tendency of children in the first year of life to regurgitate and vomit is associated with the absence of a tight grip of the esophagus with the legs of the diaphragm, as well as a violation of innervation with increased intragastric pressure. Regurgitation is also facilitated by swallowing air when sucking (aerophagia) with improper feeding technique, short frenum of the tongue, greedy sucking, too rapid release of milk from the mother's breast.

In the first weeks of life, the stomach is located in an oblique frontal plane, in front it is completely covered by the left lobe of the liver, and therefore the fundus of the stomach in the supine position is located below the antral pyloric region, therefore, to prevent aspiration after feeding, children should be given an elevated position. By the end of the first year of life, the stomach lengthens, and in the period from 7 to 11 years it takes a shape similar to that of an adult. By the age of 8, the formation of its cardiac part is completed.

The anatomical capacity of a newborn's stomach is 30-35 cm 3, by the 14th day of life, it increases to 90 cm 3. Physiological capacity is less than anatomical, and on the first day of life is only 7-10 ml; By the 4th day after the start of enteral nutrition, it increases to 40-50 ml, and by the 10th day - up to 80 ml. Subsequently, the capacity of the stomach increases monthly by 25 ml and by the end of the first year of life it is 250-300 ml, and by 3 years - 400-600 ml. An intensive increase in the capacity of the stomach begins after 7 years and by 10-12 years is 1300-1500 ml.

The muscular membrane of the stomach in a newborn is poorly developed, it reaches its maximum thickness only by 15-20 years. The mucous membrane of the stomach of the newborn is thick, the folds are high. During the first 3 months of life, the surface of the mucous membrane increases by 3 times, which contributes to better digestion of milk. By the age of 15, the surface of the gastric mucosa increases 10 times. With age, the number of gastric pits increases, into which the openings of the gastric glands open. The stomach glands at birth are morphologically and functionally underdeveloped, their relative number (per 1 kg of body weight) in newborns is 2.5 times less than in adults, but increases rapidly with the onset of enteral nutrition.

The secretory apparatus of the stomach in children of the first year of life is insufficiently developed, its functional abilities are low. The gastric juice of an infant contains the same components as the gastric juice of an adult: hydrochloric acid, chymosin (curdles milk), pepsins (breaks down proteins into albumoses and peptones) and lipase (breaks down neutral fats into fatty acids and glycerin).

Children in the first weeks of life are characterized by a very low concentration of hydrochloric acid in gastric juice and its low total acidity. It increases significantly after the introduction of complementary foods, i.e. when switching from lactotrophic nutrition to normal. In parallel with a decrease in the pH of gastric juice, the activity of carbonic anhydrase, which is involved in the formation of hydrogen ions, increases. In children of the first 2 months of life, the pH value is mainly determined by the hydrogen ions of lactic acid, and subsequently by hydrochloric acid.

The synthesis of proteolytic enzymes by the main cells begins in the antenatal period, but their content and functional activity in newborns is low and gradually increases with age. The leading role in the hydrolysis of proteins in newborns is played by fetal pepsin, which has a higher proteolytic activity. In infants, there were significant fluctuations in the activity of proteolytic enzymes, depending on the nature of feeding (with artificial feeding, the activity indicators are higher). In children of the first year of life (in contrast to adults), a high activity of gastric lipase is noted, which provides hydrolysis of fats in the absence of bile acids in a neutral environment.

Low concentrations of hydrochloric acid and pepsins in the stomach in newborns and infants determine a reduced protective function of gastric juice, but at the same time contribute to the preservation of Ig that come with mother's milk.

In the first months of life, the motor function of the stomach is reduced, the peristalsis is sluggish, the gas bubble is enlarged. The frequency of peristaltic contractions in newborns is the lowest, then it actively increases and after 3 years it stabilizes. By the age of 2, the structural and physiological characteristics of the stomach correspond to those of an adult. In infants, it is possible to increase the tone of the stomach muscles in the pyloric region, the maximum manifestation of which is pylorospasm. At an older age, cardiospasm is sometimes observed. The frequency of peristaltic contractions in newborns is the lowest, then it actively increases and after 3 years it stabilizes.

In infants, the stomach is located horizontally, with the pyloric part located near the midline, and the lesser curvature facing posteriorly. As the baby begins to walk, the axis of the stomach becomes more vertical. By the age of 7-11, it is located in the same way as in adults. The capacity of the stomach in newborns is 30 - 35 ml, by 1 year it increases to 250 - 300 ml, by the age of 8 it reaches 1000 ml. The cardiac sphincter in infants is very poorly developed, and the pyloric sphincter functions satisfactorily. This contributes to the regurgitation often seen at this age, especially when the stomach is distended by swallowing air during sucking ("physiological aerophagia"). There are fewer glands in the stomach lining of young children than in adults. And although some of them begin to function even in utero, in general, the secretory apparatus of the stomach in children of the first year of life is insufficiently developed and its functional abilities are low. The composition of gastric juice in children is the same as in adults (hydrochloric acid, lactic acid, pepsin, rennet, lipase, sodium chloride), but acidity and enzyme activity are much lower, which not only affects digestion, but also determines a low barrier stomach function. This makes it absolutely necessary to carefully observe the sanitary and hygienic regime during feeding of children (breast toilet, clean hands, correct expression of milk, sterility of nipples and bottles). V last years it was found that the bactericidal properties of gastric juice are provided by lysozyme produced by the cells of the surface epithelium of the stomach.

The maturation of the secretory apparatus of the stomach occurs earlier and more intensively in children who are bottle-fed, which is associated with the adaptation of the body to more difficult to digest food. The functional state and enzymatic activity depend on many factors: the composition of the ingredients and their quantity, the emotional tone of the child, his physical activity, and general condition. It is well known that fats suppress gastric secretion, proteins stimulate it. Depressed mood, fever, intoxication are accompanied by a sharp decrease in appetite, i.e., a decrease in gastric acid secretion. Absorption in the stomach is insignificant and mainly concerns substances such as salts, water, glucose, and only partially - protein breakdown products. Stomach motility in children during the first months of life is slowed down, peristalsis is sluggish, and the gas bubble is enlarged. The timing of evacuation of food from the stomach depends on the nature of feeding. So, human milk is retained in the stomach for 2-3 hours, cow's milk - for a longer time (3-4 hours and even up to 5 hours, depending on the buffer properties of milk), which indicates the difficulties of digesting the latter and the need to switch to more rare feedings.

Child's intestines

The intestine starts from the pylorus of the stomach and ends with the anus. Distinguish between small and large intestines. The small intestine is subdivided into the duodenum, the jejunum, and the ileum; colon - into the blind, colon (ascending, transverse, descending, sigmoid) and rectum. The relative length of the small intestine in a newborn is large: there is 1 m per 1 kg of body weight, and only 10 cm in adults.

In children, the intestine is relatively longer than in adults (in an infant it exceeds the body length by 6 times, in adults - by 4 times), but its absolute length individually varies within wide limits. The cecum and appendix are mobile, the latter is often located atypically, thereby complicating the diagnosis of inflammation. The sigmoid colon is relatively longer than in adults, and even forms loops in some children, which contributes to the development of primary constipation. With age, these anatomical features disappear. In connection with the weak fixation of the mucous and submucous membranes of the rectum, it may prolapse with persistent constipation and tenesmus in weakened children. The mesentery is longer and easily stretchable, and therefore easily torsion, intussusception, etc. The omentum in children under 5 years of age is short, therefore, the possibility of localization of peritonitis in a limited area of ​​the abdominal cavity is almost excluded. Of the histological features, it should be noted the good expression of the villi and the abundance of small lymphatic follicles.

All intestinal functions (digestive, absorption, barrier and motor) in children differ from those of adults. The digestion process, which begins in the mouth and stomach, continues in the small intestine under the influence of pancreatic juice and bile secreted into the duodenum, as well as intestinal juice. By the time the child is born, the secretory apparatus is generally formed, and even in the smallest children, the same enzymes are determined in the intestinal juice as in adults (enterokinase, alkaline phosphatase, erepsin, lipase, amylase, maltase, lactase, nuclease), but significantly less active. Only mucus is secreted in the large intestine. Under the influence of intestinal enzymes, mainly of the pancreas, the breakdown of proteins, fats and carbohydrates occurs. The process of digestion of fats is especially intense due to the low activity of lipolytic enzymes.

In breastfed babies, bile-emulsified lipids are broken down by 50% under the influence of breast milk lipase. Digestion of carbohydrates occurs in the small intestine parietally under the influence of pancreatic juice amylase and 6 disaccharidases localized in the brush border of enterocytes. In healthy children, only a small part of the sugars does not undergo enzymatic breakdown and is converted into lactic acid in the large intestine by bacterial decomposition (fermentation). Putrefaction processes do not occur in the intestines of healthy infants. The products of hydrolysis, formed as a result of cavity and parietal digestion, are absorbed mainly in the small intestine: glucose and amino acids into the blood, glycerol and fatty acids into the lymph. In this case, both passive mechanisms (diffusion, osmosis) and active transport with the help of carrier substances play a role.

The structural features of the intestinal wall and its large area are determined in children younger age higher absorption capacity than in adults and, at the same time, an insufficient barrier function due to the high permeability of the mucous membrane for toxins, microbes and other pathogenic factors. The components of human milk are most easily absorbed, the protein and fats of which in newborns are partially absorbed unbroken.

The motor (motor) function of the intestine is carried out in children very vigorously due to pendulum-like movements, stirring food, and peristaltic, moving food to the exit. Active motor skills are reflected in the frequency of bowel movements. In infants, defecation occurs reflexively, in the first 2 weeks of life up to 3 - 6 times a day, then less often, by the end of the first year of life, it becomes an arbitrary act. In the first 2 to 3 days after birth, the child secretes meconium (original feces) of a greenish-black color. It consists of bile, epithelial cells, mucus, enzymes, and swallowed amniotic fluid. The feces of healthy newborns who are breastfed have a mushy consistency, golden yellow color, and a sour odor. In older children, the chair is decorated, 1-2 times a day.

Child's duodenum

The duodenum of a newborn has a ring-shaped shape (bends are formed later), its beginning and end are located at the level L. In children older than 5 months, the upper part of the duodenum is at the level of TX | 1; the descending part gradually descends by the age of 12 to the level of L IM L IV. In young children, the duodenum is very mobile, but by the age of 7, adipose tissue appears around it, which fixes the intestine, reducing its mobility.

In the upper part of the duodenum, acidic gastric chyme is alkalized, prepared for the action of enzymes that come from the pancreas and are formed in the intestines, and mixed with bile. The folds of the duodenal mucosa in newborns are lower than in older children, the duodenal glands are small in size, and weaker branched out than in adults. The duodenum has a regulatory effect on the entire digestive system through hormones secreted by the endocrine cells of its mucous membrane.

Small intestine of a child

The jejunum occupies approximately 2/5, and the ileum 3/5 of the length of the small intestine (without the duodenum). The ileum ends with an ileocecal valve (Bauhinia valve). In young children, a relative weakness of the ileocecal valve is noted, and therefore the contents of the cecum, the richest in bacterial flora, can be thrown into the ileum, causing a high frequency of inflammatory lesions of its terminal section.

The small intestine in children occupies an unstable position, depending on the degree of its filling, body position, tone of the intestines and muscles of the anterior abdominal wall. Compared to adults, intestinal loops are more compact (due to the relatively large size liver and underdevelopment of the small pelvis). After 1 year of life, as the small pelvis develops, the location of the loops of the small intestine becomes more constant.

The small intestine of an infant contains a relatively large amount of gas, the volume of which gradually decreases until it disappears completely by the age of 7 (adults normally have no gas in the small intestine).

The mucous membrane is thin, richly vascularized and has increased permeability, especially in children of the first year of life. The intestinal glands in children are larger than in adults. Their number increases significantly during the first year of life. In general, the histological structure of the mucous membrane becomes similar to that in adults by the age of 5-7 years. In newborns, single and group lymphoid follicles are present in the thickness of the mucous membrane. At first, they are scattered throughout the intestine, and later they are grouped mainly in the ileum in the form of group lymphatic follicles (Peyer's patches). Lymphatic vessels are numerous and have a wider lumen than in adults. The lymph flowing from the small intestine does not pass through the liver, and the products of absorption go directly into the blood.

The muscular layer, especially its longitudinal layer, is poorly developed in newborns. The mesentery in newborns and young children is short, increases significantly in length during the first year of life.

In the small intestine, the main stages of the complex process of cleavage and absorption of nutrients take place with the combined action of intestinal juice, bile and pancreatic secretions. The breakdown of nutrients with the help of enzymes occurs both in the cavity of the small intestine (cavity digestion) and directly on the surface of its mucous membrane (parietal, or membrane, digestion, which dominates in infancy during the period dairy food).

The secretory apparatus of the small intestine is generally formed at birth. Even in newborns, the same enzymes can be detected in intestinal juice as in adults (enterokinase, alkaline phosphatase, lipase, amylase, maltase, nuclease), but their activity is lower and increases with age. The peculiarities of protein assimilation in young children include the high development of pinocytosis by epithelial cells of the intestinal mucosa, as a result of which milk proteins in children in the first weeks of life can pass into the blood in an unchanged form, which can lead to the appearance of AT to cow's milk proteins. In children over a year old proteins are hydrolyzed to form amino acids.

Already from the first days of a child's life, all parts of the small intestine have a fairly high hydrolytic activity. Disaccharidases in the intestine appear in the prenatal period. Maltase activity is high enough at birth and remains so in adults; a little later, sucrase activity increases. In the first year of life, a direct correlation is observed between the age of the child and the activity of maltase and sucrase. Lactase activity increases rapidly in the last weeks of gestation, and after birth, the increase in activity decreases. It remains high throughout the period of breastfeeding, by the age of 4-5 years there is a significant decrease in it, it is the smallest in adults. It should be noted that human milk rlactose is absorbed more slowly than cow's milk oslactose, and partially enters the large intestine, which contributes to the formation of gram-positive intestinal microflora in breastfed children.

Due to the low activity of lipase, the process of digestion of fats is especially intense.

Fermentation in the intestines of infants complements the enzymatic breakdown of food. There is no rotting in the intestines of healthy children in the first months of life.

Absorption is closely related to parietal digestion and depends on the structure and function of cells in the surface layer of the mucous membrane of the small intestine.

Large intestine of a child

The large intestine in a newborn has an average length of 63 cm. By the end of the first year of life, it lengthens to 83 cm, and subsequently its length is approximately equal to the height of the child. By birth, the colon does not complete its development. The newborn does not have omental processes (appear in the 2nd year of the child's life), the ribbons of the colon are barely outlined, the haustra of the colon are absent (appear after 6 months). Colon ribbons, haustra and omental processes are finally formed by 6-7 years.

The cecum in newborns has a conical or funnel-shaped shape, its width prevails over its length. It is located high (in a newborn directly under the liver) and descends into the right iliac fossa by mid-adolescence. The higher the cecum is, the more underdeveloped the ascending colon. The ileocecal valve in newborns looks like small folds. The ileocecal foramen is annular or triangular, gaping. In children over one year old, it becomes slit-like. The appendix in a newborn has a conical shape, the entrance to it is wide open (the valve is formed in the first year of life). The appendix has great mobility due to the long mesentery and can be placed in any part of the abdominal cavity, including retrocecal. After birth, lymphoid follicles appear in the appendix, which receive their maximum development by 10-14 years.

The colon surrounds the loops of the small intestine. The ascending part of the newborn is very short (2-9 cm) and increases after the colon takes its final position. The transverse part of the colon in a newborn usually has an oblique position (its left bend is located above the right) and only by 2 years it takes a horizontal position. The mesentery of the transverse part of the colon in a newborn is short (up to 2 cm), within 1.5 years its width increases to 5-8.5 cm, due to which the intestine acquires the ability to easily move when filling the stomach and small intestine. The descending part of the colon in a newborn has a smaller diameter than other parts of the colon. She is poorly mobile and rarely has a mesentery.

The sigmoid colon in a newborn is relatively long (12-29 cm) and mobile. Up to 5 years old, it is located high in the abdominal cavity due to the underdevelopment of the small pelvis, and then descends into it. Its mobility is due to the long mesentery. By the age of 7, the intestine loses its mobility as a result of shortening of the mesentery and the accumulation of adipose tissue around it. The large intestine provides water resorption and evacuation-reservoir function. In it, the absorption of digested food is completed, the remaining substances are broken down (both under the influence of enzymes coming from the small intestine and bacteria inhabiting the large intestine), and the formation of feces occurs.

The mucous membrane of the large intestine in children is characterized by a number of features: crypts are deepened, the epithelium is flatter, and the rate of its proliferation is higher. Colon secretion is insignificant under normal conditions; however, it sharply increases with mechanical irritation of the mucous membrane.

Child's rectum

The rectum of a newborn has a cylindrical shape, does not have an ampulla (its formation occurs in the first period of childhood) and bends (formed simultaneously with the sacral and coccygeal bends of the spine), its folds are not pronounced. In children of the first months of life, the rectum is relatively long and poorly fixed, since the fatty tissue is not developed. The rectum takes its final position by 2 years. In a newborn, the muscular membrane is poorly developed. Due to the well-developed submucosa and poor fixation of the mucous membrane relative to the submucosa, as well as insufficient development of the sphincter of the anus in young children, its prolapse often occurs. The anal opening in children is located dorsally in comparison with adults, at a distance of 20 mm from the coccyx.

Functional features of the child's intestines

The motor function of the intestine (motility) consists of pendulum movements that occur in the small intestine, due to which its contents are mixed, and peristaltic movements that propel the chyme towards the large intestine. The colon is also characterized by antiperistaltic movements that thicken and form feces.

Motor skills in young children are more active, which contributes to frequent bowel movements. In infants, the duration of the passage of food gruel through the intestines is from 4 to 18 hours, and in older children - about a day. High motor activity of the intestine in combination with insufficient fixation of its loops determines the tendency to intussusception.

Defecation in children

During the first hours of life, there is a discharge of meconium (original feces) - a sticky mass of dark green color with a pH of about 6.0. Meconium consists of desquamated epithelium, mucus, remnants of amniotic fluid, bile pigments, etc. On the 2-3rd day of life, feces are mixed with meconium, and from the 5th day the feces take on a form characteristic of a newborn. In children of the first month of life, bowel movements usually occur after each feeding - 5-7 times a day, in children from the 2nd month of life - 3-6 times, in 1 year - 12 times. With mixed and artificial feeding, bowel movements are more rare.

Feces in breastfed babies are mushy, yellow, acidic and have a sour odor; with artificial feeding, feces have a thicker consistency (putty), lighter, sometimes with a grayish tinge, neutral or even alkaline reaction, a sharper odor. The golden yellow color of feces in the first months of a child's life is due to the presence of bilirubin, greenish - biliverdin.

In infants, defecation occurs reflexively, without the participation of the will. From the end of the first year of life, a healthy child gradually becomes accustomed to the fact that defecation becomes an arbitrary act.

Pancreas

The pancreas, a parenchymal organ of external and internal secretion, is small in newborns: its weight is about 23 g, and its length is 4-5 cm. Already by 6 months the mass of the gland doubles, by 1 year it increases 4 times, and by 10 years - 10 times.

In a newborn, the pancreas is located deep in the abdominal cavity at the Tx level, i.e. higher than that of an adult. Due to weak fixation to the posterior wall of the abdominal cavity in a newborn, it is more mobile. In children of early and older ages, the pancreas is at the level of L n. The gland grows most intensively in the first 3 years and in puberty.

By birth and in the first months of life, the pancreas is not sufficiently differentiated, abundantly vascularized and poor in connective tissue. At an early age, the surface of the pancreas is smooth, and by the age of 10-12, tuberosity appears, due to the release of the boundaries of the lobules. The lobes and lobules of the pancreas in children are smaller and few in number. The endocrine part of the pancreas is more developed at birth than the exocrine part.

Pancreatic juice contains enzymes that provide hydrolysis of proteins, fats and carbohydrates, as well as bicarbonates, which create an alkaline reaction of the environment necessary for their activation. In newborns, a small volume of pancreatic juice is released after stimulation, amylase activity and bicarbonate capacity are low. Amylase activity from birth to 1 year increases several times. When switching to a regular diet, in which more than half of the calorie requirement is covered by carbohydrates, the amylase activity rapidly increases and reaches its maximum values ​​by the age of 6-9 years. The activity of pancreatic lipase in newborns is low, which determines the large role of salivary gland lipase, gastric juice and breast milk lipase in fat hydrolysis. The lipase activity of the duodenal contents increases by the end of the first year of life, reaching the adult level by the age of 12. Proteolytic activity of pancreatic secretion in children during the first months of life is quite high, it reaches a maximum at the age of 4-6 years.

The type of feeding has a significant effect on the activity of the pancreas: with artificial feeding, the activity of enzymes in the duodenal juice is 4-5 times higher than with natural one.

In a newborn, the pancreas is small (length 5 - 6 cm, by 10 years - three times more), located deep in the abdominal cavity, at the level of the X thoracic vertebra, in subsequent age periods - at the level of the I lumbar vertebra. It is richly vascularized, intensive growth and differentiation of its structure continues up to 14 years. The organ capsule is less dense than in adults, consists of fine-fibrous structures, and therefore in children with inflammatory edema of the pancreas, its compression is rarely observed. The excretory ducts of the gland are wide, which provides good drainage. Close contact with the stomach, mesentery root, solar plexus and common bile duct, with which the pancreas in most cases has a common outlet to the duodenum, often leads to a friendly reaction from the organs of this zone with a wide irradiation of pain.

The pancreas in children, as in adults, has external and intrasecretory functions. The exocrine function is to produce pancreatic juice. It contains albumins, globulins, trace elements and electrolytes, as well as a large set of enzymes necessary for the digestion of food, including proteolytic (trypsin, chymopsin, elastase, etc.), lipolytic (lipase, phospholipase A and B, etc.) and amylolytic (alpha and beta amylase, maltase, lactase, etc.). The rhythm of pancreatic secretion is regulated by neuro-reflex and humoral mechanisms. Humoral regulation is carried out by secretin, which stimulates the separation of the liquid part of pancreatic juice and bicarbonates, and pancreosimin, which enhances the secretion of enzymes along with other hormones (cholecystokinin, hepatokinin, etc.) produced by the mucous membrane of the duodenum and jejunum under the influence of hydrochloric acid. The secretory activity of the gland reaches the level of secretion of adults by the age of 5 years. The total volume of separated juice and its composition depend on the amount and nature of the food eaten. The intrasecretory function of the pancreas is carried out by the synthesis of hormones (insulin, glucagon, lipocaine) involved in the regulation of carbohydrate and fat metabolism.

Liver in children

Liver size in children

By the time of birth, the liver is one of the largest organs and occupies 1 / 3-1 / 2 of the volume of the abdominal cavity, its lower edge protrudes significantly from under the hypochondrium, and the right lobe may even touch the iliac crest. In newborns, the liver mass is more than 4% of the body weight, and in adults - 2%. In the postnatal period, the liver continues to grow, but more slowly than body weight: the initial liver weight doubles by 8-10 months and triples by 2-3 years.

Due to the different rate of increase in the weight of the liver and body in children from 1 to 3 years of age, the edge of the liver emerges from under the right hypochondrium and is easily palpated 1-3 cm below the costal arch along the midclavicular line. From 7 years old, the lower edge of the liver does not come out from under the costal arch and is not palpable in a calm position; along the median line, it does not go beyond the upper third of the distance from the navel to the xiphoid process.

The formation of liver lobules begins in the fetus, but by the time of birth, the liver lobules are not clearly delineated. Their final differentiation is completed in the postnatal period. The lobular structure is revealed only by the end of the first year of life.

The branches of the hepatic veins are arranged in compact groups and are not interspersed with the branches of the portal vein. The liver is full-blooded, as a result of which it rapidly increases with infections and intoxications, circulatory disorders. The fibrous capsule of the liver is thin.

About 5% of the liver volume in newborns falls on the share of hematopoietic cells, subsequently their number rapidly decreases.

A newborn's liver contains more water, but less protein, fat and glycogen. By the age of 8, the morphological and histological structure of the liver becomes the same as in adults.

Liver functions in the child's body

The liver performs varied and very important functions:

• produces bile, which is involved in intestinal digestion, stimulates intestinal motor activity and sanitizes its contents;
• deposits nutrients, mainly excess glycogen;
• carries out a barrier function, protecting the body from exogenous and endogenous pathogenic substances, toxins, poisons, and takes part in the metabolism of medicinal substances;
• participates in the metabolism and transformation of vitamins A, D, C, B12, K;
• during intrauterine development is a hematopoietic organ.

The formation of bile begins already in the prenatal period, but bile formation at an early age is slowed down. With age, the ability of the gallbladder to concentrate bile increases. The concentration of bile acids in the hepatic bile in children of the first year of life is high, especially in the first days after birth, which causes the frequent development of subhepatic cholestasis (bile thickening syndrome) in newborns. By the age of 4-10 years, the concentration of bile acids decreases, and in adults it increases again.

The neonatal period is characterized by the immaturity of all stages of the hepatic intestinal circulation of bile acids: inadequacy of their capture by hepatocytes, excretion through the tubular membrane, slowing down of bile flow, dyscholia due to a decrease in the synthesis of secondary bile acids in the intestine and a low level of their reabsorption in the intestine. Children produce more atypical, less hydrophobic and less toxic fatty acids than adults. The accumulation of fatty acids in the intrahepatic bile ducts causes an increased permeability of intercellular junctions and an increased content of bile components in the blood. The bile of a child in the first months of life contains less cholesterol and salts, which determines the rarity of stone formation.

In newborns, fatty acids are combined mainly with taurine (in adults, with glycine). Taurine conjugates are more soluble in water and less toxic. The relatively higher content of taurocholic acid in bile, which has a bactericidal effect, determines the rare development of bacterial inflammation of the biliary tract in children of the first year of life.

The enzyme systems of the liver, which provide an adequate metabolism of various substances, are not mature enough at birth. Artificial feeding stimulates their earlier development, but leads to their imbalance.

After birth, the child's synthesis of albumin decreases, which leads to a decrease in the albuminoglobulin ratio in the blood.

In children, transamination of amino acids occurs in the liver much more actively: at birth, the activity of aminotransferases in the child's blood is 2 times higher than in the mother's blood. At the same time, the transamination processes are not mature enough, and the number of essential acids for children is greater than for adults. So, in adults there are 8 of them, children under 5-7 years old need additional histidine, and children in the first 4 weeks of life also need cysteine.

The urea-forming function of the liver is formed by 3-4 months of life, before that, children have high urinary excretion of ammonia at a low concentration of urea.

Children in the first year of life are resistant to ketoacidosis, although they receive a diet rich in fat, and at the age of 2-12, on the contrary, they are prone to it.

In a newborn, the content of cholesterol and its esters in the blood is much lower than that of the mother. After the start of breastfeeding, hypercholesterolemia is noted for 3-4 months. In the next 5 years, the concentration of cholesterol in children remains lower than in adults.

In newborns in the first days of life, insufficient activity of glucuronyl transferase is noted, with the participation of which conjugation of bilirubin with glucuronic acid and the formation of water-soluble "direct" bilirubin occur. Difficulty in the excretion of bilirubin is the main cause of physiological jaundice in newborns.

The liver performs a barrier function, neutralizes endogenous and exogenous harmful substances, including toxins from the intestines, and takes part in the metabolism of drugs. In young children, the detoxifying function of the liver is insufficiently developed.

The functionality of the liver in young children is relatively low. Its enzyme system is especially inconsistent in newborns. In particular, the metabolism of indirect bilirubin released during hemolysis of erythrocytes is not fully carried out, which results in physiological jaundice.

Gallbladder in a child

The gallbladder in newborns is usually hidden by the liver, its shape can be different. Its size increases with age, and by the age of 10-12 years, its length increases by about 2 times. The rate of excretion of gallbladder bile in newborns is 6 times less than in adults.

In newborns, the gallbladder is located deep in the thickness of the liver and has a fusiform shape, its length is about 3 cm. It acquires a typical pear-shaped shape by 6-7 months and reaches the edge of the liver by 2 years.

The bile of children is different in composition from the bile of adults. It is poor in bile acids, cholesterol and salts, but rich in water, mucin, pigments, and in the neonatal period, in addition, in urea. A characteristic and favorable feature of the child's bile is the predominance of taurocholic acid over glycocholic acid, since taurocholic acid enhances the bactericidal effect of bile, and also accelerates the separation of pancreatic juice. Bile emulsifies fats, dissolves fatty acids, improves peristalsis.

Intestinal microflora of a child

During intrauterine development, the intestines of the fetus are sterile. Its settlement with microorganisms occurs first when the mother's birth canal passes, then through the mouth when children come into contact with surrounding objects. The stomach and duodenum contain a meager bacterial flora. In the small and especially the large intestine, it becomes more diverse, the number of microbes increases; microbial flora depends mainly on the type of feeding of the child. When feeding with mother's milk, the main flora is B. bifidum, the growth of which is promoted by (3-lactose of human milk. thus, dyspepsia is more common in children who are bottle-fed.According to modern concepts, the normal intestinal flora performs three main functions:

Creation of an immunological barrier;

Final digestion of food debris and digestive enzymes;

Synthesis of vitamins and enzymes.

The normal composition of the intestinal microflora (eubiosis) is easily disturbed under the influence of infection, improper diet, as well as the irrational use of antibacterial agents and other drugs, leading to a state of intestinal dysbiosis.

Historical data on intestinal microflora

The study of intestinal microflora began in 1886, when F. Escherich described Escherichia coli (Bacterium coli cotipae). The term "dysbiosis" was first introduced by A. Nissle in 1916. Subsequently, the positive role of normal intestinal microflora in the human body was proved by I.I.Mechnikov (1914), A.G. Peretz (1955), A.F. Bilibin (1967), V. N. Krasnogolovets (1968), A. S. Bezrukova (1975), A. A. Vorobyov et al. (1977), I. N. Blokhina et al. (1978), V.G. Dorofeychuk et al. (1986), B. A. Shenderov et al. (1997).

Characteristics of intestinal microflora in children

The microflora of the gastrointestinal tract takes part in digestion, prevents the development of pathogenic flora in the intestine, synthesizes a number of vitamins, participates in the inactivation of physiologically active substances and enzymes, affects the rate of renewal of enterocytes, intestinal hepatic circulation of bile acids, etc.

The intestines of the fetus and newborn are sterile during the first 10-20 hours (aseptic phase). Then colonization of the intestine with microorganisms begins (second phase), and the third phase - microflora stabilization - lasts at least 2 weeks. The formation of the microbial biocenosis of the intestine begins from the first day of life, by the 7-9th day in healthy full-term babies, the bacterial flora is usually represented mainly by Bifidobacterium bifldum, Lactobacillus acidophilus. With natural feeding, B. bifidum prevails among the intestinal microflora, with artificial feeding, L. acidophilus, B. bifidum and enterococci are present in almost equal amounts. The transition to nutrition typical for adults is accompanied by a change in the composition of the intestinal microflora.

Intestinal microbiocenosis

The center of the human microecological system is the intestinal microbiocenosis, the basis of which is the normal (indigenous) microflora, which performs a number of important functions:

Indigenous microflora:

• participates in the formation of colonization resistance;
• produces bacteriocins - antibiotic-like substances that prevent the reproduction of putrefactive and pathogenic flora;
• normalizes intestinal motility;
• participates in the processes of digestion, metabolism, detoxification of xenobiotics;
• possesses universal immunomodulatory properties.

Distinguish mucoid microflora(M-microflora) - microorganisms associated with the intestinal mucosa, and cavity microflora(P-microflora) - microorganisms localized mainly in the intestinal lumen.

All representatives of the microbial flora with which the macroorganism interacts are divided into four groups: obligate flora (the main intestinal microflora); optional (opportunistic and saprophytic microorganisms); transient (random microorganisms incapable of long-term stay in the macroorganism); pathogenic (pathogens of infectious diseases).

Obligate microflora intestines - bifidobacteria, lactobacilli, full-fledged Escherichia coli, propionobacteria, peptostreptococci, enterococci.

Bifidobacteria in children, depending on age, make up from 90% to 98% of all microorganisms. Morphologically, they represent gram-positive, motionless rods with a clavate thickening at the ends and bifurcation at one or both poles, anaerobic, not forming spores. Bifidobacteria are divided into 11 species: B. bifidum, B. ado-lescentis, B. infantis, B. breve, B. hngum, B. pseudolongum, B. thermophilum, B. suis, B. asteroides, B. indu.

Dysbacteriosis is a violation of the ecological balance of microorganisms, characterized by a change in the quantitative ratio and qualitative composition of the indigenous microflora in the microbiocenosis.

Intestinal dysbiosis is a violation of the ratio between anaerobic and aerobic microflora towards a decrease in the number of bifidobacteria and lactobacilli, normal E. coli and an increase in the number of microorganisms that are found in small numbers or usually absent in the intestine (opportunistic microorganisms).

Methodology for the study of the digestive system

The state of the digestive system is judged by complaints, the results of questioning the mother and the data of objective research methods:

inspection and observation in dynamics;

palpation;

percussion;

laboratory and instrumental indicators.

Child complaints

The most common of these are complaints of abdominal pain, decreased appetite, regurgitation or vomiting, and intestinal dysfunction (diarrhea and constipation).

Questioning the child

The questioning of the mother directed by the doctor makes it possible to clarify the time of the onset of the disease, its connection with the dietary habits and regimen, the past diseases, and the family-hereditary nature. A detailed clarification of feeding issues is of particular importance.

Abdominal pain is a common symptom that reflects a variety of pathologies in childhood. The pains that have arisen for the first time require, first of all, the exclusion of surgical pathology of the abdominal cavity - appendicitis, intussusception, peritonitis. They can also be caused by acute infectious diseases (influenza, hepatitis, measles), viral and bacterial intestinal infections, inflammation of the urinary tract, pleuropneumonia, rheumatism, pericarditis, Schönlein-Henoch disease, periarteritis nodosa. Recurrent abdominal pain in older children is observed in diseases such as gastritis, duodenitis, cholecystitis, pancreatitis, gastric ulcer and duodenal ulcer, ulcerative colitis. Functional disorders and helminthic invasion can also be accompanied by abdominal pain.

Decreased or prolonged loss of appetite (anorexia) in children is often the result of psychogenic factors (overload at school, family conflict, neuroendocrine dysfunction during puberty), including improper feeding of the child (force-feeding). However, usually a decrease in appetite indicates a low secretion of the stomach and is accompanied by disorders of trophism and metabolism.

Vomiting and regurgitation in newborns and infants may be due to pyloric stenosis or pylorospasm. In healthy children of this age, aerophagia, which is observed in violation of the feeding technique, a short frenum of the tongue, and a tight breast in the mother, leads to frequent regurgitation. In children 2-10 years old, suffering from neuro-arthritic diathesis, acetonemic vomiting may periodically occur due to acute reversible metabolic disorders. Vomiting is possible due to damage to the central nervous system, infectious diseases, poisoning.

Diarrhea in children of the first year of life often reflects intestinal dysfunction due to qualitative or quantitative feeding errors, irregularities, overheating (simple dyspepsia) or accompany an acute febrile illness (parenteral dyspepsia), but can also be a symptom of enterocolitis in case of intestinal infection.

Constipation is a rare bowel movement that occurs after 48 hours or more. They can be the result of both a functional disorder (dyskinesia) of the large intestine, and its organic lesion (congenital narrowing, cracks in the anus, Hirschsprung's disease, chronic colitis) or inflammatory diseases of the stomach, liver and biliary tract. Alimentary (eating food, poor in fiber) and infectious factors are of some importance. Sometimes constipation is associated with the habit of delaying the act of defecation and the violation, as a result, of the tone of the lower segment of the colon, and in infants with chronic malnutrition (pyloric stenosis). In children with sufficient weight gain, breastfeeding, stool is sometimes rare due to good digestion and a small amount of toxins in the intestines.

When examining the abdomen, pay attention to its size and shape. In healthy children of different ages, it slightly protrudes above the level chest, and subsequently flattens a little. The increase in the size of the abdomen can be attributed to a number of reasons:

• hypotension of the muscles of the abdominal wall and intestines, which is especially often observed in rickets and dystrophies;
• flatulence, developing with diarrhea of ​​various etiologies, persistent constipation, intestinal dysbiosis, pancreatitis, cystofibrosis of the pancreas;
• an increase in the size of the liver and spleen in chronic hepatitis, systemic blood diseases, circulatory failure and other pathology;
• the presence of fluid in the abdominal cavity due to peritonitis, ascites;
• neoplasm of the abdominal cavity and retroperitoneal space.

The shape of the abdomen also has a diagnostic value: its uniform increase is observed with flatulence, hypotonia of the muscles of the anterior abdominal wall and intestines ("frog" abdomen - with rickets, celiac disease), local swelling in hepatolienal syndrome of various etiologies, tumors of the abdominal cavity and retroperitoneal space. Abdominal sinking can be observed when a child is starving, pyloric stenosis, meningitis, diphtheria. On examination, it is possible to determine the state of the navel in newborns, the expansion of the venous network with cirrhosis of the liver, the divergence of the white line muscles and hernial protrusions, and in emaciated children of the first months of life - intestinal peristalsis, which increases with pyloric stenosis, intussusception and other pathological processes.

Palpation of the abdomen and abdominal organs of the child

Palpation of the abdomen and abdominal organs is best done with the patient in the supine position with slightly bent legs, with a warm hand, starting from the navel, and it is necessary to try to distract the child's attention from this procedure. Superficial palpation is carried out with light tangential movements. It makes it possible to determine the condition of the abdominal skin, muscle tone and tension of the abdominal wall. Deep palpation reveals the presence of painful points, infiltrates, determines the size, consistency, nature of the surface of the lower edge of the liver and spleen, an increase in mesenteric lymph nodes with tuberculosis, lymphogranulomatosis, reticulosis and other diseases, spastic or atonic state of the intestine, accumulation of feces.

Palpation is also possible when the child is upright with a half-bend forward and hands down. At the same time, the liver and spleen are well felt, and free fluid in the abdominal cavity is determined. In older children, bimanual palpation of the abdominal organs is used.

Percussion of the baby's abdomen

Examination of the baby's abdomen

In the last place, the oral cavity and the pharynx of the child are examined. At the same time, attention is paid to the smell from the mouth, the state of the mucous membranes of the cheeks and gums (the presence of aphthae, ulcers, bleeding, fungal overlays, Filatov-Koplik spots), teeth, tongue (macroglossia with myxedema), papillary crimson - with scarlet fever, coated - with diseases of the gastrointestinal tract, "geographical" - with exudative-catarrhal diathesis, "varnished" - with hypovitaminosis B12).

The anal area is examined in younger children in a lateral position, in the rest - in a knee-elbow position. Examination reveals: cracks in the anus, decreased sphincter tone and gaping with dysentery, prolapse of the rectum with persistent constipation or after an intestinal infection, irritation of the mucous membrane with pinworm invasion. Digital rectal examination and sigmoidoscopy can detect polyps, tumors, strictures, fecal stones, mucosal ulceration, etc.

Of great importance in assessing the state of the digestive system is a visual examination of stool. In infants with enzymatic dysfunction of the intestine (simple dyspepsia), dyspeptic stool is often observed, which looks like chopped eggs (liquid, greenish, with an admixture of white lumps and mucus, acidic reaction). Stool is very characteristic for colitis, dysentery. Bloody stools without an admixture of feces against the background of an acutely developed severe general condition can be in children with intestinal intussusception, Discolored stools indicate a delay in the flow of bile into the intestines and is observed in children with hepatitis, blockage or atresia of the bile ducts. Along with the determination of the amount, consistency, color, odor and pathological impurities visible to the eye, the characteristics of the stool are supplemented by microscopic data (coprograms) on the presence of leukocytes, erythrocytes, mucus in the stool, as well as helminth eggs, lamblia cysts. In addition, bacteriological and biochemical studies of feces are carried out.

Laboratory and instrumental research

These studies are similar to those conducted in adults. Of greatest importance is the currently widely used endoscopy, which allows you to visually assess the state of the mucous membranes of the stomach and intestines, make a targeted biopsy, detect neoplasms, ulcers, erosion, congenital and acquired strictures, diverticula, etc. Endoscopic examinations of children of early and preschool age are carried out under general anesthesia. Apply also ultrasound procedure parenchymal organs, radiography of the biliary tract and gastrointestinal tract (with barium), gastric and duodenal intubation, determination of enzymes, biochemical and immunological parameters of blood, biochemical analysis of bile, rheohepatography, laparoscopy with targeted biopsy of the liver and subsequent morphological study of biopsy.

Laboratory and instrumental research methods are of particular importance in the diagnosis of diseases of the pancreas, which, due to its location, does not lend itself to direct methods of physical research. The size and contours of the gland, the presence of stones in the excretory ducts, developmental anomalies are detected by relaxation duodenography, as well as retrograde cholangiopancreatography, echopancreatography. Violations of exocrine function observed in cystofibrosis, post-traumatic cysts, atresia of the biliary tract, pancreatitis, are accompanied by a change in the level of basic enzymes determined in blood serum (amylase, lipase, trypsin and its inhibitors), in saliva (isoamylase), urine and duodenal contents. Persistent steatorrhea is an important indicator of insufficiency of exocrine pancreatic function. The intrasecretory activity of the pancreas can be judged on the basis of studying the nature of the glycemic curve.

Young children (especially newborns) have a number of morphological features common to all parts of the gastrointestinal tract: 1) thin, delicate, dry, easily injured mucous membrane; 2) a richly vascularized submucosal layer, consisting mainly of loose fiber; 3) insufficiently developed elastic and muscle tissue; 4) low secretory function of the glandular tissue, which separates a small amount of digestive juices with a low content of enzymes. These features make it difficult to digest food, if the latter does not match the age of the child, reduce the barrier function of the gastrointestinal tract and lead to frequent diseases, create the prerequisites for a general systemic response to any pathological effect and require very careful and careful care of the mucous membranes.

Oral cavity. In a newborn and a child in the first months of life, the oral cavity has a number of features that ensure the act of sucking. These include: a relatively small volume of the oral cavity and a large tongue, good development of the muscles of the mouth and cheeks, roller-like duplicates of the mucous membrane of the gums and transverse folds on the mucous membrane of the lips, fatty bodies (Bisha's lumps) in the thickness of the cheeks, characterized by significant elasticity due to the predominance they contain solid fatty acids. The salivary glands are underdeveloped. However, insufficient salivation is mainly due to the immaturity of the nerve centers that regulate it. As they mature, the amount of saliva increases, and therefore, at the age of 3-4 months, the child often develops the so-called physiological salivation due to the not yet developed automatism of swallowing it.

Esophagus. In young children, the esophagus is funnel-shaped. Its length in newborns is 10 cm, in children 1 year old - 12 cm, 10 years old - 18 cm, diameter - 7 - 8, 10 and 12-15 mm, respectively, which must be taken into account when carrying out a number of medical and diagnostic procedures.

Stomach. In infants, the stomach is located horizontally, with the pyloric part located near the midline, and the lesser curvature facing posteriorly. As the baby begins to walk, the axis of the stomach becomes more vertical. By the age of 7-11, it is located in the same way as in adults (Fig. 10-12). The capacity of the stomach in newborns is 30 - 35 ml, by 1 year it increases to 250 - 300 ml, by the age of 8 it reaches 1000 ml. The cardiac sphincter in infants is very poorly developed, and the pyloric sphincter functions satisfactorily. This contributes to the regurgitation, which is often seen at this age, especially when the stomach is distended due to the swallowing of air during sucking ("physiological aerophagy"). There are fewer glands in the stomach lining of young children than in adults. And although some of them begin to function even in utero, in general, the secretory apparatus of the stomach in children of the first year of life is insufficiently developed and its functional abilities are low. The composition of gastric juice in children is the same as in adults (hydrochloric acid, lactic acid, pepsin, rennet, lipase, sodium chloride), but acidity and enzyme activity are much lower (Table 3), which not only affects digestion, but also determines the low barrier function of the stomach. This makes it absolutely necessary to carefully observe the sanitary and hygienic regime during feeding of children (breast toilet, clean hands, correct expression of milk, sterility of nipples and bottles). In recent years, it has been established that the bactericidal properties of gastric juice are provided by lysozyme produced by the cells of the surface epithelium of the stomach.

As you can see from the table. 3, acidity indicators fluctuate significantly, which is explained by the individual characteristics of the formation of gastric secretion and the age of the child.

Determination of acidity is carried out by the fractional method using 7% cabbage broth, meat broth, 0.1 % a solution of histamine or pentagastrin. The main active enzyme of gastric juice is chymosin (rennet, labenzyme), which provides the first phase of digestion - milk curdling. Pepsin (in the presence of hydrochloric acid) and lipase continue the hydrolysis of proteins and fats in curdled milk. However, the value of gastric acid lipase in the digestion of fats is small due to its extremely low content and low activity. This deficiency is compensated for by lipase, which is found in human milk, as well as in the baby's pancreatic juice. Therefore, in infants who receive only cow's milk, fat in the stomach is not broken down. The maturation of the secretory apparatus of the stomach occurs earlier and more intensively in children who are bottle-fed, which is associated with the adaptation of the body to more difficult to digest food. The functional state and enzymatic activity depend on many factors: the composition of the ingredients and their quantity, the emotional tone of the child, his physical activity, and general condition. It is well known that fats suppress gastric secretion, proteins stimulate it. Depressed mood, fever, intoxication are accompanied by a sharp decrease in appetite, i.e., a decrease in gastric acid secretion. Absorption in the stomach is insignificant and mainly concerns substances such as salts, water, glucose, and only partially - protein breakdown products. Stomach motility in children during the first months of life is slowed down, peristalsis is sluggish, and the gas bubble is enlarged. The timing of evacuation of food from the stomach depends on the nature of feeding. So, human milk is retained in the stomach for 2-3 hours, cow's milk - for a longer time (3-4 hours and even up to 5 hours, depending on the buffer properties of milk), which indicates the difficulties of digesting the latter and the need to switch to more rare feedings.

Pancreas. In a newborn, the pancreas is small (length 5 - 6 cm, by 10 years - three times more), located deep in the abdominal cavity, at the level of the X thoracic vertebra, in subsequent age periods - at the level of the I lumbar vertebra. It is richly vascularized, intensive growth and differentiation of its structure continues up to 14 years. The organ capsule is less dense than in adults, consists of fine-fibrous structures, and therefore in children with inflammatory edema of the pancreas, its compression is rarely observed. The excretory ducts of the gland are wide, which provides good drainage. Close contact with the stomach, mesentery root, solar plexus and common bile duct, with which the pancreas in most cases has a common outlet to the duodenum, often leads to a friendly reaction from the organs of this zone with a wide irradiation of pain.

The pancreas in children, as in adults, has external and intrasecretory functions. The exocrine function is to produce pancreatic juice. It contains albumins, globulins, trace elements and electrolytes, as well as a large set of enzymes necessary for the digestion of food, including proteolytic (trypsin, chymopsin, elastase, etc.), lipolytic (lipase, phospholipase A and B, etc.) and amylolytic (α- and (beta-amylase, maltase, lactase, etc.). The rhythm of pancreatic secretion is regulated by neuro-reflex and humoral mechanisms. enhancing the secretion of enzymes along with other hormones (cholecystokinin, hepatokinin, etc.) produced by the mucous membrane of the duodenum and jejunum under the influence of hydrochloric acid.The secretory activity of the gland reaches the level of secretion of adults by the age of 5. The total volume of secreted juice and its composition depend on the amount and the nature of the food eaten. ez hormones (insulin, glucagon, lipocaine) involved in the regulation of carbohydrate and fat metabolism.

Liver. In children, the liver is relatively large, its mass in newborns is 4 - 6% of the body weight (in adults - 3%). The liver parenchyma is poorly differentiated, the lobularity of the structure is revealed only by the end of the first year of life, it is full-blooded, as a result of which it rapidly increases in size in various pathologies, especially in infectious diseases and intoxications. By the age of 8, the morphological and histological structure of the liver is the same as in adults.

The liver performs various and very important functions: 1) produces bile, which is involved in intestinal digestion, stimulates the motor activity of the intestine and sanitizes its contents; 2) deposits nutrients, mainly an excess of glycogen; 3) carries out a barrier function, protecting the body from exogenous and endogenous pathogenic substances, toxins, poisons, and takes part in the metabolism of medicinal substances; 4) participates in the metabolism and transformation of vitamins A, D, C, B12, K; 5) during intrauterine development is a hematopoietic organ.

The functionality of the liver in young children is relatively low. Its enzyme system is especially inconsistent in newborns. In particular, the metabolism of indirect bilirubin released during hemolysis of erythrocytes is not fully carried out, which results in physiological jaundice.

The gallbladder. In newborns, the gallbladder is located deep in the thickness of the liver and has a fusiform shape, its length is about 3 cm.

it acquires a piquant pear-shaped form by 6-7 months and reaches the edge of the liver by 2 years.

The bile of children is different in composition from the bile of adults. It is poor in bile acids, cholesterol and salts, but rich in water, mucin, pigments, and in the neonatal period, in addition, in urea. A characteristic and favorable feature of the child's bile is the predominance of taurocholic acid over glycocholic acid, since taurocholic acid enhances the bactericidal effect of bile, and also accelerates the separation of pancreatic juice. Bile emulsifies fats, dissolves fatty acids, improves peristalsis.

Intestines. In children, the intestine is relatively longer than in adults (in an infant it exceeds the body length by 6 times, in adults - by 4 times), but its absolute length individually varies within wide limits. The cecum and appendix are mobile, the latter is often located atypically, thereby complicating the diagnosis of inflammation. The sigmoid colon is relatively longer than in adults, and even forms loops in some children, which contributes to the development of primary constipation. With age, these anatomical features disappear. In connection with the weak fixation of the mucous and submucous membranes of the rectum, it may prolapse with persistent constipation and tenesmus in weakened children. The mesentery is longer and easily stretchable, and therefore easily torsion, intussusception, etc. The omentum in children under 5 years of age is short, therefore, the possibility of localization of peritonitis in a limited area of ​​the abdominal cavity is almost excluded. Of the histological features, it should be noted the good expression of the villi and the abundance of small lymphatic follicles.

All intestinal functions (digestive, absorption, barrier and motor) in children differ from those of adults. The digestion process, which begins in the mouth and stomach, continues in the small intestine under the influence of pancreatic juice and bile secreted into the duodenum, as well as intestinal juice. The intestinal secretory apparatus at the time of the birth of the child is generally formed, and even in the smallest children, the same enzymes are determined in the intestinal juice as in adults (enterokinase, alkaline phosphatase, erepsin, lipase, amylase, maltase, lactase, nuclease), but significantly less active. Only mucus is secreted in the large intestine. Under the influence of intestinal enzymes, mainly of the pancreas, the breakdown of proteins, fats and carbohydrates occurs. The process of digestion of fats is especially intense due to the low activity of lipolytic enzymes.

In breastfed babies, bile-emulsified lipids are broken down by 50% under the influence of breast milk lipase. Digestion of carbohydrates occurs in the small intestine parietally under the influence of pancreatic juice amylase and 6 disaccharidases localized in the brush border of enterocytes. In healthy children, only a small part of the sugars does not undergo enzymatic breakdown and is converted into lactic acid in the large intestine by bacterial decomposition (fermentation). Putrefaction processes do not occur in the intestines of healthy infants. The products of hydrolysis, formed as a result of cavity and parietal digestion, are absorbed mainly in the small intestine: glucose and amino acids into the blood, glycerol and fatty acids into the lymph. In this case, both passive mechanisms (diffusion, osmosis) and active transport with the help of carrier substances play a role.

The structural features of the intestinal wall and its large area determine in young children a higher absorption capacity than in adults, and at the same time an insufficient barrier function due to the high permeability of the mucous membrane for toxins, microbes and other pathogenic factors. The components of human milk are most easily absorbed, the protein and fats of which in newborns are partially absorbed unbroken.

The motor (motor) function of the intestine is carried out in children very vigorously due to pendulum-like movements, stirring food, and peristaltic, moving food to the exit. Active motor skills are reflected in the frequency of bowel movements. In infants, defecation occurs reflexively, in the first 2 weeks of life up to 3 - 6 times a day, then less often, by the end of the first year of life, it becomes an arbitrary act. In the first 2 to 3 days after birth, the child secretes meconium (original feces) of a greenish-black color. It consists of bile, epithelial cells, mucus, enzymes, and swallowed amniotic fluid. The feces of healthy newborns who are breastfed have a mushy consistency, golden yellow color, and a sour odor. In older children, the chair is decorated, 1-2 times a day.

Microflora. During intrauterine development, the intestines of the fetus are sterile. Its settlement with microorganisms occurs first when the mother's birth canal passes, then through the mouth when children come into contact with surrounding objects. The stomach and duodenum contain a meager bacterial flora. In the small and especially the large intestine, it becomes more diverse, the number of microbes increases; microbial flora depends mainly on the type of feeding of the child. When feeding with breast milk, the main flora is B. bifidum, the growth of which is promoted (betta-lactose of human milk. thus, dyspepsia is more often observed in children who are bottle-fed.According to modern concepts, the normal intestinal flora performs three main functions: 1) creating an immunological barrier; 2) final digestion of food debris and digestive enzymes; 3) synthesis of vitamins and enzymes. The normal composition of the intestinal microflora (eubiosis) is easily disturbed under the influence of infection, improper diet, as well as the irrational use of antibacterial agents and other drugs, leading to a state of intestinal dysbiosis.

Oral cavity represents the initial part of the digestive tract. It is bounded from above by a hard and soft palate, from below by the diaphragm of the mouth, and on the sides by the cheeks.

In infants, the oral cavity has structural features in connection with the adaptation to the act of sucking. The dimensions of the oral cavity in a child of the first year of life are relatively small. The alveolar processes of the jaws are underdeveloped, the bulge of the hard palate is poorly expressed, the soft palate is located more horizontally than in an adult.

There are no transverse folds on the hard palate of the newborn. The mucous membrane of the oral cavity is delicate, there are many blood vessels in it, so it looks bright red with a slight matte shade. The tongue is relatively large and fills the mouth almost completely. The muscles of the tongue and lips are well developed. On the tongue there are all types of papillae, the number of which increases during the first year of life.

There are many relatively wide lymphatic capillaries in the body of the tongue. On the gums, a roller-like thickening is noticeable - the gingival membrane, which is a duplication of the mucous membrane. The mucous membrane of the lips has a transverse folding. In the thickness of the cheeks, rather dense fatty pads are delimited (due to the refractory fats they contain), called Bisha's lumps.

The chewing muscles are well developed. All these features of the oral cavity are important for the sucking act. The sucking reflex is fully expressed in mature full-term newborns.

Saliva contributes to better sealing of the oral cavity when sucking. The salivary glands in newborns are poorly developed, they are richly vascularized and mature rather quickly. Saliva is important in the digestion of carbohydrates (amylase appears in saliva, first in the parotid, and by the end of the second month in other salivary glands) and in the formation of a food lump, has a bactericidal effect.

Enzymatic processing of food in the oral cavity is carried out with the help of enzymes contained in saliva - amylases, peptidases, etc. When feeding with milk, food quickly moves into the stomach and does not have time to undergo enzymatic hydrolysis.

The activity of salivary enzymes increases significantly between the ages of one and four years. The severity of secretion depends on the nature of the diet. Artificial feeding produces more saliva than breastfeeding. By wetting the mucous membranes, saliva helps to seal the oral cavity during the sucking act. It also promotes foaming, wetting thick food, which, when mixed with saliva, is easier to swallow. Milk mixed with saliva is curdled in the stomach in smaller, delicate flakes. The content of lysozyme in saliva determines its protective, bactericidal effect.

Esophagus in a newborn child, it often has a funnel-shaped shape, the expansion of the funnel is turned up. Gradually, as the child grows and develops, the shape of the esophagus becomes the same as that of an adult, i.e. funnel pointing downward. From a practical point of view, it is customary to give norms, taking into account not the true length of the esophagus, but the distance from the dental arches to the entrance of the stomach. This distance increases with age, amounting to 16.3 - 19.7 cm for a child at the age of one month, 22 - 24.5 cm at the age of 1.5-2 years, reaching the size of an adult - 48 - 50 cm by the age of 15-17. The absolute length of the esophagus in newborn children is 10-11 cm, by the end of the 1st year of life it reaches 12 cm, by 5 years -16 cm, by 10 years -18 cm, by 18 years - 22 cm, in an adult it is 25-32 see In infancy, the elastic and muscle tissue of the esophagus is poorly developed, there are many blood vessels in the mucous membrane, the glands are almost completely absent. The cardiac sphincter, which functionally separates the stomach and esophagus, is defective in infants, which causes the discharge of contents from the stomach into the esophagus and can lead to regurgitation and vomiting. The formation of the cardiac department is completed by the age of 8.

Stomach

in children of the first months of life, it has a horizontal position. His tone is elastic. The physiological volume of the stomach is less than the anatomical capacity. The stomach of an infant is characterized by a relatively weak development of the muscle layer of the cardiac region and fundus and a well-developed pyloric region. The stomachs, which mainly produce pepsin (main cells) and hydrochloric acid (parietal cells), are underdeveloped. With the onset of enteral nutrition, the number of glands increases.

In newborns and infants, there is a morphological and functional immaturity of the secretory apparatus of the stomach, which is manifested by a low volume of secretion of the gastric glands and the qualitative characteristics of gastric juice. In children of the first months of life, there is an almost complete absence of hydrochloric acid in gastric juice; The pH is mainly determined by the hydrogen ions not of hydrochloric acid, but of lactic acid. The gastric glands of the newborn synthesize several isoforms of pepsin, of which the largest amount is fetal pepsin, which exhibits maximum activity at pH 3.5. Moreover, its effect on proteins, including curdling, is 1.5 times stronger than that of pepsin itself.

By the end of the first year, proteolytic activity increases 3 times (but remains 2 times lower than in adults). The low acid-peptic potential of the stomach in children during the first months of life ensures the preservation of immune defense factors (especially secretory JgA), lymphoid cells and macrophages contained in breast milk. This protects the child after birth from massive bacterial invasion at a time when its own active local immunity is just beginning to form. Due to lipase of gastric juice, emulsified fats of milk are decomposed, which is facilitated by the low acidity of the juice.

The motor activity of the stomach and intestines in children in the first years of life is slowed down in the rhythm and speed of propagation of waves of contractions, peristalsis is sluggish, which is associated both with insufficient development of neuro-humoral mechanisms, and with an underdeveloped muscular layer of the wall of the stomach and intestines. The born has no hungry stomach motility. The rate of evacuation of food chyme depends on many factors, first of all, on the composition of milk, complementary foods and the efficiency of digestion of nutrients. With artificial feeding, the time of gastric and intestinal evacuation increases sharply. With the same volume of breast milk and artificial mixture, the retention time of food chyme in the latter case increases to 3-4 hours, mixtures with additional fat content are evacuated from the stomach after 6-6.5 hours.

Duodenum

Duodenal juice is a mixture of intestinal secretions, pancreas, bile and gastric juice.

Pancreatic juice contains proteolytic enzymes (trypsinogen, chemotrypsin, aminopeptidase, collagenase, carboxypeptidase, elastase), lipase, which breaks down fats, and amylase, which hydrolyzes carbohydrates to disaccharides.

Pancreatic proteases enter the intestine in an inactive state and are activated by an enzyme produced by the intestinal mucosa - enterokinase. In this case, trypsinogen is converted into trypsin, which breaks down proteins and polypeptides to amino acids. The activity of trypsin and chemotrypsin is relatively low in newborns and even less in premature babies. Pancreatic lipase enters the duodenum in an active state. Bile acids enhance its action. Bile promotes the emulsification of fats, which are then broken down by lipase to glycerol and fatty acids. The concentration of pancreatic lipase in the duodenal juice in newborns is relatively low due to the underdevelopment of the acinar apparatus of the gland, by the age of 5 it becomes the same as in adults. Amylase hydrolyzes starch and glycogen to disaccharides. Of disaccharidases, maltase breaks down maltose to glucose, sucrose - sucrose to glucose and fructose. The activity of these enzymes in children appears very early and is reduced only in premature babies.

In addition to enzymes, pancreatic juice contains other organic (albumin, globulins, mucus) and inorganic substances (sodium, potassium, calcium, phosphorus, chlorine ions; trace elements - zinc, copper, manganese, etc.).

Gastrointestinal hormones have a regulatory effect: secretin, pancreozymin, cholecystokinin, hepatocrinin, enterokinin and their complexes. Secretin, formed under the action of hydrochloric acid in the mucous membrane of the duodenum, activates the formation and secretion of the liquid part of pancreatic juice and bicarbonates. Pancreozymin stimulates enzyme secretion. Cholecystokinin is active in combination with pancreosimin, causing stimulation of pancreatic secretion and contraction of the gallbladder.

It should be noted that by the time a child is born, all regulatory peptides available in an adult are synthesized in the small intestine: gastrin, secretin, enteroglucagon, motilin, somatostatin, neurotensin, gastroinhibitory peptide, vasoactive intestinal peptide.

AFO guts

Small intestine differs in the variability of shape and size in young children. The length of the intestine and the location of its sections largely depend on the tone of the intestinal wall and the nature of the food.

In young children, in addition to a relatively large total length, the intestinal loops lie more compactly, since the abdominal cavity in this period is mainly occupied by a relatively large liver, and the small pelvis is not developed. Only after the first year of life, as the small pelvis develops, the location of the loops of the small intestine becomes permanent. The ileum ends with an ileocecal valve, which consists of two cusps and a frenum. The upper valve is low and long, obliquely positioned; the lower one is higher and shorter, located vertically.

In young children, there is a relative weakness of the ileocecal valve, and therefore the contents of the cecum, the richest in bacterial flora, can be thrown into the ileum, predisposing to dysbiosis.

Cavity and membrane digestion

Intestinal digestion in children is currently divided into three main types: extracellular (cavity), membrane (parietal), and intracellular.

The mucous membrane of the small intestine has many folds, microvilli, due to which the absorption surface of the intestine increases. Enterocytes perform hydrolysis and absorption on the surface of the mucous membrane of the small intestine. From the side of the intestinal lumen, the microvilli are covered with a protein-lipoglycoprotein complex - a glycocalyx containing lactase, esterase, alkaline phosphatase and other enzymes.

Hydrolysis and absorption carried out on the membrane of the "brush border" of enterocytes is called membrane or parietal digestion.

In children of the first months of life, the intensity of cavity digestion is low.

Cavity digestion in the small intestine is carried out due to the secretions of the pancreas, liver, intestinal juice, containing enzymes of hydrolysis of proteins, fats, carbohydrates (enterokinase, alkaline and acid phosphatase, erypsin, lipase, amylase, maltase, lactase, sucrase, leucine aminopeptidase, etc. .).

Hydrolysis and absorption are carried out mainly in the proximal small intestine (in children of the first months of life - in the entire small intestine). Enterokinase and alkaline phosphatase are especially active in cavity digestion.... Of the disaccharidases for the digestion of infants, the intestinal enzyme lactase is especially important, which breaks down lactose (milk sugar) into glucose and galactose. Its activity in young children is high, then during life the activity of lactase gradually decreases. With congenital insufficiency of lactase activity (lactase deficiency), milk sugar enters the large intestine unchanged, where it is decomposed by the saccharolytic microflora with the formation of a large amount of anhydrides and gases, as a result of which the child develops a syndrome of impaired absorption (malabsorption), dyspeptic disorders are observed.

All parts of the small intestine of an infant have a high hydrolytic and absorption capacity. In addition, in children of the first weeks of life, pinocytosis by enterocytes of the intestinal mucosa is relatively highly developed. Milk proteins can pass into the baby's blood unchanged. This can partly explain the frequency of allergic diathesis during early artificial feeding. In babies fed with breast milk, hydrolysis of nutrients begins in the oral cavity at the expense of breast milk enzymes - autolytic digestion.

Colon

The development of the large intestine does not end before the baby is born. Muscle bands of the large intestine in newborns are barely noticeable, and the haustra are absent up to 6 months. In children under 4 years of age, the ascending colon is longer in length than the descending colon. Due to the relatively longer length of the large intestine and the aforementioned features, children may be prone to constipation.

The mucous membrane of the large intestine does not produce cavity enzymes. Digestion here can be carried out only due to enzymes penetrating from the upper intestine. Food debris in the large intestine is broken down mainly as a result of the activity of the microbial flora. The absorption of water and peptides, sugars, organic acids, chlorides continues in the colon.

Rectum in children of the first months of life, it is relatively long and, when filled, can occupy a small pelvis. In a newborn, the ampulla of the rectum is almost undeveloped. The anal columns and sinuses are not formed, adipose tissue is not developed, and therefore it is poorly fixed. Therefore, infants should not be potted early.

Anatomical and physiological features of the liver in children

In newborns liver is one of the largest organs and accounts for 4.4% of body weight. It takes up almost half of the volume of the abdominal cavity. In the postnatal period, its growth slows down and lags behind the rate of increase in body weight. In children of the first 6 months of life, the liver protrudes from under the edge of the costal arch at the level of the right nipple line by 2-3 cm, at the age of 1.5-2 years - by 1.5 cm, 3-7 years - by 1.2 cm. The liver is held in a certain position by ligaments and partially by connective tissue located in the extraperitoneal field. Due to the imperfect structure of the ligamentous apparatus, the liver in children is very mobile.

The liver is one of the main hematopoietic organs in the antenatal period. In a newborn, hematopoietic cells make up about 5% of the liver's volume, their number decreases with age. The liver deposits blood, it can accumulate up to 6% of all blood, occupying up to 15% of the liver's volume. It is the largest glandular organ in the digestive system that produces bile. In the structure of the organ, several segments are distinguished, delimited by elements of the fibrous capsule. The lobular structure is revealed by the year. Histologically, by the age of 8, the liver becomes almost the same as in adults. The gallbladder in newborns has a fusiform shape, and in older children it is pear-shaped. At the age of 5 years, its bottom is projected to the right of the midline 1.5-2 cm below the costal arch.

Methods for assessing liver function.

1. Synthetic liver function

• Albumen 35 - 52 g / l- the main blood protein, which performs a transport function and ensures the maintenance of oncotic pressure.
• Prothrombin according to Quick the norm is -70 - 120%.(also called prothrombin time) and international normalized ratio (INR, INR) 0,8 — 1,2 - the main indicators used to assess external path blood clotting (fibrinogen, prothrombin, factor V, VII and X).
• Cholesterol. Hypercholesterolemia is a characteristic feature of hepatic cholestasis observed in cholelithiasis, primary sclerosing cholangitis, viral hepatitis, primary biliary cirrhosis and some other diseases.

2. The metabolic function of the liver

• ALT < 37 Ед/л and AST < 44 Ед/л - enzymes necessary for the metabolism of amino acids. ALT is a more specific marker of liver disease than AST. With viral hepatitis and toxic liver damage, as a rule, the same increase in ALT and AST levels is observed. With alcoholic hepatitis, liver metastases and liver cirrhosis, a more pronounced increase in AST is observed than ALT.
• Alkaline phosphatase, ALP, is another key liver enzyme that catalyzes the transfer of phosphate groups between different molecules.
• Gamma-glutamyl transpeptidase, gamma-HT, is a liver enzyme that catalyzes the transfer of the gamma-glutamyl group of glutathione to other molecules.

3. Excretory function of the liver

• Bilirubin

Bile is formed in the liver, accumulates in the gallbladder and, getting into the duodenum, under the influence of food stimuli, promotes alkalization of food gruel from the stomach, emulsifies fats, and enhances intestinal motility. In children, bile is poor in bile acids, cholesterol, lecithin and salts, rich in pigments and mucin. It contains relatively more taurocholic acid, while in adults it contains glycocholic acid. Taurocholic acid has more pronounced bactericidal properties, and therefore in infants and young children, bacterial and inflammatory processes in the biliary tract rarely develop.

Pancreas is the second largest gland (after the liver) of the gastrointestinal tract, producing basic digestive enzymes. In newborns, it is smooth, similar to a prism, by the age of 5-6 years its consistency becomes denser, the surface becomes bumpy and takes the same shape as in an adult. In newborns, the pancreas is relatively mobile. With age, the formation of connective tissue ligaments limits its mobility.

The simplest and most affordable method for assessing the digestive system is characteristicchair.

The term "meconium" refers to the entire contents of the baby's intestines that have accumulated before delivery and before the first attachment to the breast. The composition of meconium is represented by cells of the intestinal epithelium, the remnants of swallowed amniotic fluid with exfoliated skin cells and cheese-like lubricant, bile, intestinal and pancreatic secretions. The volume of meconium is 60-200 g, and most often it leaves in the first 12 hours. When researching chemical composition meconium, a small amount of fat is found in it and almost no protein is detected.

Stool in a breastfed child 4-6 times a day, golden yellow, turns green when standing, aromatic odor, ointment consistency, unformed, contains single leukocytes and epithelial cells.

With artificial feeding, the stool is 1 to 3 times a day, golden yellow, crumbly, dry, single leukocytes; epithelial cells, fat drops are determined.

Scatological research data.

The reaction of feces is weakly alkaline reaction PH = 6.2 - 7.2. The bulk is detritus. Digested muscle fibers (+), soaps (+), possibly undigested fiber, digested fiber (+).

The formation of intestinal microflora.

A baby is born with a sterile gastrointestinal tract. The first phase of the formation of its microflora is called aseptic. Man and mammals are designed in such a way that at the moment of birth, the newborn is automatically seeded with the natural microflora of the mother's body, i.e. significant colonization of the child by microbes begins already during childbirth, thereby ending his relatively sterile intrauterine existence.

In the second (lasting 2-4 days) phase, the gastrointestinal tract is actively colonized by microorganisms. During physiological childbirth, microorganisms from the microflora of the vagina, intestines and mother's skin become antigenically related to the child's body (therefore, having the maximum ability to engraft) become the source of primary contamination. Therefore, excessive concern for the "sterility" of conditions for the newborn during childbirth can be the first step towards dysbiosis. Birth by caesarean section contributes to the occurrence of a certain proportion of dysbiosis in a child.

The colonization of the intestines of newborns with bifidoflora is closely related to breastfeeding. First, a variety of flora appears in the stool of a newborn, mainly coccal, as well as gram-positive bacilli, often Proteus, Klebsiella and other microorganisms are found. The microbial landscape at this time depends on the degree of contamination of the environment and the release of certain microorganisms from the mother and the personnel caring for the newborns.

In breastfed children, bifidobacteria account for 98% of the total intestinal microflora. Factors contributing to the growth of bifidoflora in the intestines include milk a-lactose, bifidos factor 1 (N-acetyl-a-glucosamine), etc. After thermal treatment of human milk, their activity decreases. An important protective role is also played by lysozyme and IgA of human milk, which provide passive local immunity in newborns and children in the first months of life.

The third phase of development is characterized by microflora stabilization, with bifidoflora becoming the main one. The duration of the third phase depends on many conditions. So, it is delayed in premature babies, with a late onset breastfeeding and early complementary feeding (in children who eat breast milk, 1 g of feces contains 10 9 - 10 10 bifidobacteria, and in those on artificial feeding - 10 7 - 10 6 and less).

In many respects, the formation of microflora in children is associated with the condition of the mother: the stabilization period is lengthened with the pathology of pregnancy, childbirth, and some diseases of pregnant women. The most significant risk factors for the development of intestinal dysbiosis in young children are late attachment to the mother's breast, transfer to mixed and artificial feeding. It is confirmed that in such cases the formation of bifidoflora is postponed in time; in the intestinal microbiocenosis, E. coli, enterococci, staphylococci and lactobacilli are found in almost equal proportions. Such children more often than those receiving breast milk suffer from intestinal diseases. To preserve the bifidoflora, the amount of human milk received by the child is important: if it is at least 1/3 of the total daily diet, then bifidobacteria will prevail in the intestines.

Intestinal microflora is of great importance for a growing child's body:

- ensuring the colonization resistance of the organism, that is, curbing the growth and reproduction of pathogenic and opportunistic microorganisms in it;

- participation in synthetic, digestive, detoxification and other intestinal functions;

- stimulation of the synthesis of biologically active substances (α-alanine, 5-aminovaleric and gamma-aminobutyric acid, as well as mediators) that affect the function of the gastrointestinal tract, liver, cardiovascular system, hematopoiesis, etc.;

- maintenance of sufficient levels of lysozyme, secretory immunoglobulins, mainly IgA, interferon, cytokines, properdin and complement for the implementation of the body's immunological defense;

- morphokinetic effect and increased physiological activity of the gastrointestinal tract.

Table 28 shows the indicators of bacteriological examination of the intestines of children and adults.