The issue of gender differences in socialization is widely discussed in the cross-cultural literature on gender differences in behavior. Munro and Munro concluded that there are modal gender differences in behavior in every society, and that in every society there is a certain division of labor along gender lines. These two phenomena, in addition to being universal, also appear to be functionally related.
The correspondence between gender differences in the process of socialization increases, and they become more noticeable and more pronounced. The fact that men and women act differently is not surprising, but it is still interesting questions. For example, did all societies have different innate behavioral tendencies between men and women, and did societies develop specific socialization practices to reinforce these biologically based tendencies? Or are public socialization practices simply influenced by certain physical differences between men and women, along with those practices that are responsible for their differences in behavior? (See Chapter 3 for a discussion of these possibilities.)
At the risk of oversimplifying things, we can summarize gender differences in behavior as presented in studies that are based on the HRAF. Data shows that men are more self-confident, more goal-oriented and dominant, while women are more socially responsible, passive and submissive. This can be explained by the fact that differences in behavior are just a result, even if it is almost universal and almost never reversible. It varies in the range from very large values to virtually zero. Satisfactory arguments explain both the universality of the direction of the differences and the variations in the magnitude of the differences.
This explanation takes into account economic facts, including division of labor and socialization practices. The argument goes back to early anthropological studies which show that the division of labor by gender is universal or almost universal and very consistent in content. For example, in almost all societies it is women who prepare the food. As a rule, they are also responsible for caring for children. Sometimes this responsibility is shared, but in no society is the primary responsibility for this process modal for men. These differences are often viewed as stemming from biologically based, physical (rather than behavioral) differences, especially due to lower overall physical strength women and, most of all, because of its functions of childbearing and caring for the child. The distinct economic roles of men and women, with the latter assigned primarily to housework, are a functional response. The second argument was that differential socialization developed as a means of preparing children to assume gender-specific adult roles. Therefore, differences in behavior are best viewed as the product of different socialization emphases, along with those that in turn reflect different kinds adult activities and are properly taught them.
Extension ecological model Barry (1976) Van Leeuwen extends his evidence in such a way that it can reconcile other aspects of foraging modes and variations in the level of sex differences in behavior. Thus, in settled societies with high level In order to store food, not only do women have to learn more about caring for younger ones and being more accommodating, but their training is significantly different from that of men. In societies with low levels of food accumulation, such as gatherers and hunters, there is less of a sexual division of labor and less need to train either sex to be compliant. Often in such societies (at least in foraging societies, if not in hunting societies, as we will see below), women's contribution to the main activity of obtaining food is an integral part of it. Consequently, women's work is valued by men, who are then not inclined to belittle women's achievements or insist on their subordination.
The division of labor differs in different cultures, including the level of women's employment in food production. Their participation in such activities may be relatively low or high, depending on the type of activity. For example, if food is obtained by gathering, the level of female participation is usually high. In eleven of the fourteen (79%) foraging societies reported in ethnographic reports, women's contributions were significant. In contrast, in only two of sixteen (13%) hunting societies were women major contributors. Women are more likely to make a relatively large contribution to subsistence production where the main activity is either gathering or farming (but not intensive farming), and less where crop production, intensive farming, fishing or hunting are required.
What are the consequences of changing women's role in food production? Schlegel and Barry concluded that two sets of cultural traits, adaptive and attitudinal, were associated with women's contribution to food production. Where women played a relatively large role in food production, such characteristics, like polygamy, exogamy, bridewealth, birth control and oriented labor activity girls' education. Under these conditions, women were valued quite highly, given greater freedom, and, in general, were less likely to be perceived only as objects for satisfying a man's sexual needs and for having children.
From all of the above, we can conclude that women really behave differently than men. Obviously, these gender differences are strongly influenced by cultural factors that operate through socialization practices and reflect environmental factors. Both the consistency of cross-cultural data and the changes from society to society help us understand how cultural practices differ for both sexes, and how people try to behave in accordance with them.
Book fragment John Medina. Brain rules. What you and your children should know about the brain. - M.: Mann, Ivanov and Ferber, 2014.
Did you know that 26 minutes of sleep can improve your productivity by 34%? That the brain does not stop its activity during sleep and is even more active than during periods of wakefulness? That men and women perceive reality and make decisions very differently? We know very little about how our brain functions, and we do not take into account the peculiarities of its work in our Everyday life and professional activities. Meanwhile, such knowledge can help us work more productively, remember more, learn better and conduct effective negotiations and presentations.
The results of one experiment can be summed up in these words: the man is a cool dude, and the woman is a bitch. During the experiment, four groups of subjects, consisting of an equal number of men and women, were asked to evaluate the professional success of an airline assistant vice president invented by three researchers. Each group was given a brief description of the responsibilities of the vice president, but the first group was also told that the vice president was male. They were asked to rate the candidate's competence and ability to win them over. The second group was told that the vice president was a woman. Her ability to win people over was highly rated, but her competence was not. All test factors were the same; the only variable was gender.
The third group was told that the vice president was a male superstar, a brilliant professional with a meteoric career. The fourth group was also told that the vice president was a superstar, but only a female one who followed the express route to a leadership position. As in the first case, the third group rated the man as “highly competent” and “able to win over.” The female superstar was also rated as "highly competent" but "unlikable."
Participants described her with words such as “unfriendly.” Like I said, the man was great and the woman was a bitch.
Gender discrimination still plagues people in the real world. In the controversial world of the brain and sex differences, it is very important not to lose sight of the described social effect. There are many misconceptions regarding the relationship between men and women that are associated with the concepts of sex and gender. Sex is usually described by biological and anatomical differences, while gender is described by social differences. Sex is determined by DNA, but gender is not. The differences between male and female brains start with what comes first.
X -factor
How do we become men and women? The road to fulfilling a sexual role begins with the great enthusiasm inherent in normal sexual behavior. Four hundred million sperm are trying to find an egg. Not such a difficult task. In the microscopic world of the human body, the egg is comparable to the Death Star*, and the sperm is comparable to star fighters with x-shaped wings. IN in this case the designation with the letter “x” is very appropriate: this is how the important chromosome carried by each sperm and egg is designated. You remember about chromosomes from biology lessons; these twisted strands of DNA are found in the nucleus, which contains the information necessary for the creation of man. This requires 46 such units, which can be compared to 46 volumes of an encyclopedia. We get 23 from our mother and 23 from our father. Two chromosomes are responsible for sex. And at least one of them must be X-chromosome.
*The Death Star is a space battle station in the fictional Star Wars universe, equipped with energy weapons of extreme destructive power, capable of destroying entire planets. Note ed.
If you receive a set of two X- chromosomes, you will have to use the ladies' room all your life; and if X And y- that's the men's room. The man is responsible for determining gender. (The wives of King Henry VIII would be glad to know about this, because he executed one of them because she could not bear him an heir to the throne, although he himself should have been beheaded.) Y- only a sperm can carry a chromosome (an egg does not have one), therefore the gender of the child depends on the male genetic material.
Gender differences between men and women are determined by three characteristics: genetic, anatomical and behavioral. Typically, researchers dedicate their careers to studying one of them; each difference is an entire island in the common ocean of research. We'll look at all three and start by explaining (from a molecular genetics perspective) why Henry VIII was very guilty of Anne Boleyn.
One of interesting facts about y-chromosome is that in order to become a man, you do not need the entire chromosome. Only an initial push is required to launch the development program of the male organism, which is provided by the sex determination gene SRY. This gene was discovered by scientist David Page, director of the Whitehead Institute and professor at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology. At fifty, he looks twenty-eight. Page has extraordinary intelligence, charm and a keen sense of humor. He is the first molecular sexologist. Or, more precisely, a broker-sexologist. David Page discovered that it is possible to destroy the SRY gene in a male embryo and turn it into a female embryo, or by adding the SRY* gene to a female embryo to turn it into a male embryo. Why is this possible? Concerned that men are biologically programmed to dominate the planet, researchers have discovered that the basic attitudes of mammals determine the female sex of the embryo.
* SR - sex reversal, from English. "gender transformation" Note lane
There is a monstrous inequality between the two chromosomes. X-chromosome takes on most of the difficult work, while small y protects the genes associated with it by the fact that five of them commit suicide in slow motion every million years. Now the number of genes has been reduced to 100. For comparison: X-chromosome carries 1500 genes necessary for the implementation of the Embryo project. There is no reduction observed here.
From each X-chromosomes require one gene to form a male X. For the development of a female embryo, they need twice as much. Let's imagine this as a pie recipe with one cup of flour. If you put two glasses, everything will not change in the best possible way. The female embryo resorts to a time-tested weapon in solving the problem of two X: He just ignores one of them. This silent behavior of chromosomes is called inactivation X-chromosomes*. One of the chromosomes is marked with the molecular equivalent of a “Do Not Disturb” sign. If you have a choice of two X-chromosomes, maternal and paternal, researchers would like to know which one is labeled.
*Inactivation X-chromosome occurs in the cells of female mammals in order to have two copies X-chromosomes did not produce twice as many products of the corresponding genes as in male mammals. This process is called gene dosage compensation. Inactivated X-chromosome will remain inactive in all subsequent daughter cells resulting from division. Note ed.
The answer was unexpected: it happens by chance. Some cells of a female embryo put a sign on the mother's X-chromosome. Neighboring cells place a plaque on the paternal chromosome. At this stage of the study, no dependence was identified - the event is considered random. Therefore, the cells of a female embryo are a complex mosaic of active and inactive maternal and paternal genes X-chromosomes. Since males need all 1500 genes to survive X-chromosomes, and there is only one, it would be stupid to hang “Do Not Disturb” signs. That's why they never do it. Inactivation X-chromosomes do not occur during the development of a male embryo. And since boys must get X from the mother, all men are literally mama's boys. Boys are fundamentally different from their sisters, who are genetically more complex. This bold statement describes our first (genetic) evidence of gender differences.
We know the function of 1500 genes X-chromosomes. Now get ready. Many of these genes are associated with brain activity and determine how we think. In 2005, after the chromosome sequence of the human genome was revealed, it was determined that a high percentage of genes X-chromosomes ensure the generation of proteins involved in the formation of the brain. Some of these genes are involved in higher mental functioning, from verbal skills and social behavior to certain intellectual abilities. Scientists call X-chromosome “hot spot” of cognition.
Is more better?
The purpose of genes is to create molecules to carry out the functions of the cells in which they are found. From the totality of these cells, the brain is built - the center for controlling human behavior. Neuroanatomy studies the shape and structure of the nervous system and its organs, and the cell, as we know, is the basic unit of a living organism. And the brain, accordingly, also consists of cells. By the way, it is difficult to find those that are not influenced by sex chromosomes.
In laboratories (perhaps it should be noted that they are run by both men and women) differences have been identified in the frontal lobe and prefrontal cortex of the brain, which control decision-making ability. Some parts of these areas are thicker in women than in men. Differences in the limbic system, where emotions are formed and certain cognitive processes occur, depend on gender. The fundamental difference concerns the amygdala, which regulates not only the occurrence of emotions, but also the ability to remember them. Contrary to popular belief, this area is much larger in men than in women. Amygdala female body communicates with the left hemisphere, and the male one - mostly with the right. Neuroscientists have studied the composition of biochemical elements, and here, too, there are gender differences. Consider, for example, the regulation of serotonin, the main neurotransmitter in regulating emotions and mood. In the male body, serotonin is synthesized 52 percent faster than in the female body.
Why do these physical differences matter? In the animal kingdom, size matters for survival. At first glance, human nature follows the same principles. We already know that in violinists, the area of the brain that controls the left hand is larger than the area that controls the right hand. However, neuroscientists have hardly touched upon the question of what the functions of cellular structures are. We still don't know whether the differences are influenced by neurotransmitters or whether they are determined by the size of the brain region involved.
War of the sexes
I have no particular desire to write about this. The study of gender differences in behavior has a long and complex history.
Even our best scientific minds were subject to all sorts of prejudices. For example, comments by Larry Summers, the president of Harvard University, regarding the assessment of female students' mathematics and theory nearly cost him his career. He is kept company by equally smart people. Just look at these three:
“A woman is a powerless man, unable to produce semen due to her cold nature. We, in turn, must treat women as a vice, although included in natural development by nature itself" ( Aristotle).
“Girls begin to speak and stand on their feet earlier than boys, because weeds grow faster than grain” ( Martin Luther).
"If they can put a man on the moon...why can't they all go there?" ( Jill, graffiti on a shower wall done in 1985; response to Luther's quote).
Thus the battle of the sexes continues. Aristotle and Jill are separated by almost 2400 years, but in this war we have hardly moved from the point. Even in the era of the greatest scientific progress, using the metaphor of the names of the planets, Mars and Venus, some people try to give recommendations on how to use these differences in relationships. For the most part, I think their data boils down to statistics.
There are significant differences in how men and women think about certain things. But when it comes to measurable differences, everyone somehow thinks that scientists are talking about individual people, like themselves. And this is a big misconception. Scientists study the population as a whole. The statistics of such studies are not based on individual results. Yes, trends exist, but they vary, and often the differences between the sexes are so small that they can be neglected. And they are certainly not sufficient to say how a particular person (man or woman) will react to a particular stimulus. Indeed, every time neuroscientist Flo Haseltine performs a functional magnetic resonance imaging scan, the machine reveals differences in the brain's response depending on whether she is studying the brain of a man or a woman. How exactly this relates to actual behavioral manifestations is a completely different question.
First hints
Knowledge of the biological causes of behavioral differences begins with the study of brain pathology. Mental retardation affects men more often than women. Many mental abnormalities are caused by a mutation in one of 24 genes X-chromosomes. As you know, men have no reserve X-chromosome, and its damage leads to corresponding consequences. If damaged X- a woman’s chromosome, often no consequences can be expected. This fact provides the strongest evidence that X-chromosomes are involved in brain function.
Professional psychiatrists have long been aware of gender-based differences in the types and severity of mental disorders. For example, men are more likely to develop schizophrenia. The ratio of women to men suffering from depression is 2:1 - this result is observed immediately after puberty and remains stable over the next fifty years. Men are more likely to antisocial behavior. Women are more prone to increased anxiety. Among men, more people suffer from alcoholism and drug addiction. Anorexia is more common in women. Thomas Insel from the National Institute mental health The US states: “It is difficult to determine which factor, other than gender, influences these diseases more.”
What about the behavior of healthy people? Are there big differences between the sexes when it comes to mental, social and cognitive functioning? Let's look at the latest results of scientists' work.
Traumatic situations
While walking with parents little boy hit by a car. It is unlikely that anyone who witnessed such an incident will be able to forget it. What if you could forget? You will remember that the amygdala plays a key role in the formation of emotions. Suppose some magic elixir is able to stop this process. Such an elixir exists, and its effects demonstrate that men and women process emotions differently.
You may have heard about interhemispheric asymmetry. You may also know that due to the predominance of the right or left hemisphere, people are divided into creators and analysts. This phenomenon can be described using the following example: suppose the left side of a magnificent liner is responsible for keeping the ship afloat, and the right side is responsible for ensuring that it overcomes the waves. Both parties are involved in both processes. However, this does not mean that the hemispheres work in the same way. The right determines the essence of the issue, and the left analyzes the details.
Observing the brain function of men and women under conditions of acute stress (he showed them horror films), researcher Larry Cahill noticed that in men the reaction was expressed from the amygdala in the right hemisphere. Their left hemisphere was at rest. In women, the reaction was observed in the other hemisphere. Their left amygdala became active while their right hemisphere remained silent. If men are right-brained, does that mean they are better at remembering the essence than the details of emotions caused by stress? Do women remember details better than the essence of an emotional experience associated with stress? Cahill decided to find out.
This magical elixir of oblivion is the beta blocker propranolol, which is commonly used to regulate blood pressure. This medicinal product blocks the production of biochemicals that activate the amygdala during emotional experience. Its properties were identified during research into drugs for the treatment of mental disorders and the consequences of participation in hostilities.
Cahill's subjects took the drug before watching the film. A week later, a researcher tested their memories of the film. It turned out that men who took the medicine lost the ability to remember the meaning of what was happening, unlike men who did not take the medicine. Women have lost the ability to reproduce details. But these results should be interpreted correctly. They reflect only the emotional reaction to stressful situations, and not objective data and conclusions. This is not a battle between accountants and dreamers.
Cahill's findings have been confirmed by similar studies around the world. Other laboratories continued his endeavors and found that women reproduce emotional events from their own experience faster and more intensely than men. Their memories of emotional important events, such as a first date or vacation, are more lively. Other studies have shown that under stress, women focus on raising children, while men withdraw. This trend observed in women is called “protection and support”*. Why this happens is unknown, but American evolutionary biologist Stephen Gould states: “There is no way to draw a clear line without violating the laws of logic, mathematics and general scientific principles.”
*According to Shelley Taylor's theory called "Tend and befriend", under stress, women tend to protect their children and seek support from a certain social group. Note lane
This statement reminded me of my sons' fight, but Gould is talking about the opposition between the biological and the social.
Verbal communication
Behavioral scientist Deborah Tannen has done some amazing work in this area by studying gender differences in verbal ability. In short, the data Tannen and other researchers have found over the past thirty years is this: Women are better at it. Although the nuances are often controversial, most empirical evidence comes from atypical members of the human race, including those with brain pathologies. We have long known that speech and reading impairments occur in boys twice as often as in girls. Women recover speech better after a stroke than men. Many researchers believe that this imbalance is due to differences in the process of thinking itself, and look to neuroanatomical data to explain the differences. When processing verbal information, women use both hemispheres of the brain, while men use only one. In women, the hemispheres are connected by a thick “cable”, in men - by a thinner one. In addition, the fair sex has a backup data archiving system, which the stronger sex does not have.
These clinical data were used to confirm the results obtained by the researchers. At school age, girls' verbal thinking is better developed than boys. They perform better on tasks related to word recall, speech fluency, and articulation speed. As girls grow up, they remain champions in the field of memorizing and processing verbal information. However, these data cannot be viewed in isolation from the social context. Therefore, Gould’s opinion also has a right to exist.
Tannen spent a lot of time observing and filming how girls and boys interacted with each other. Her initial goal was to find out how children in at different ages talking to their best friends to see if they use any schemes. And if such schemes exist, how stable are they? Will the schemes developed in childhood, during your student years? What Tannen found was expected and consistent, regardless of a person's age or location. The model of communication adopted by an adult is formed directly during interaction with the same sex in childhood. Tannen's data focuses on three aspects.
Strengthening relationships
When communicating best friends lean towards each other, maintaining eye contact, and talk a lot. They use their verbal talent to strengthen relationships. Boys never behave like that. They rarely look each other directly in the face, preferring to look past or askance. They rarely make eye contact and do not engage in conversation to strengthen their relationship. In the boys' community there is a different currency - hits. Joint physical activity is the glue that holds their relationship together.
My sons Josh and Noah have played the same game since they could walk - a simple game of throwing a ball. Josh says, “I can throw the ball all the way to the ceiling,” and immediately does it. Children laugh. Noah catches the ball and says: “Oh so?!” Then I can throw it to the sky,” and throws the ball even higher. So, laughing, they continue the game until they reach space and God.
Tannen found such patterns everywhere - except in the behavior of little girls. Female version: one of the sisters says: “I can throw the ball to the ceiling” - and does it. The sisters laugh merrily. Then the second sister takes the ball, throws it to the ceiling and says: “I can do that too!” And then they talk about how great it is that they can both throw the ball the same height. The same pattern of behavior is observed in both sexes in adulthood.
Unfortunately, Deborah Tannen's findings were misinterpreted: "Boys compete all the time, but girls always work together." However, as practice shows, boys are also very prone to cooperation. They just do it through competition, developing their favorite strategy physical activity.
Negotiation
IN primary school boys finally begin to use their verbal skills - for example, to discuss their status in big company. According to Tannen, male individuals with high social status bark orders to the rest of the group, verbally or even physically pushing low-status boys.
“Leaders” maintain power over their fiefdoms by not only issuing orders, but also verifying their implementation. Other strong members of the group compete with them, so the boys at the head of the groups quickly learn to fight back against attacks. Often in verbal form. As a result, there is a clear hierarchy in the boys' community. And it's quite durable. Life for low-status group members is often sad. The independent behavior characteristic of a controlling elite is always highly valued.
By observing little girls, Tannen identified different patterns of behavior. Both high-status and low-status girls (they have a hierarchy just like boys) used completely different strategies to create and maintain hierarchy. Girls spend a lot of time talking - communication is very important to them. The type of conversation determines the status of the relationship. She who is trusted with secrets has status best friend. The more secrets are entrusted, the closer the girls perceive each other, but girls tend to downplay their status among themselves. With the help of developed verbal skills, they avoid issuing decrees. When one of the girls tries to command, her manner is usually rejected: she is labeled as a "boss" and becomes socially isolated. It's not that decisions aren't followed in a girl group... Many girls make suggestions and then discuss alternative options. Eventually a consensus is reached.
The differences between the sexes can be demonstrated with one powerful word. Boys say, “Do this,” and girls say, “Let’s do this.”
Adulthood
Tannen found that over time, these modes of verbal communication become entrenched, leading to differences in the social sensitivity of the two groups. Each boy who gave orders became a leader. Each girl who gave orders became a commander. By the end of school, their behavior was completely formed. And it manifests itself especially clearly at work and in married life.
A twenty-year-old newly-made wife is traveling in a car with her friend Emily. She felt thirsty. "Emily, are you thirsty?" - she asks. Emily, who has experience in negotiations, understands what her friend wants.
"Don't know. And you?" - Emily reacts. A small discussion ensues between them over whether they are thirsty enough to stop the car and buy water.
A few days later, the same girl is traveling with her husband. "Do you want to drink?" - she asks. “No, I don’t want to,” the husband replies.
That day they had a little quarrel. The wife was angry because she wanted her husband to stop the car; and he was angry because she didn’t say directly what she wanted. Such conflicts are widespread in family life.
This scenario could very well play out at work. Women who adhere to a “masculine” style of leadership risk being perceived as bossy. Men who adhere to the same line of behavior are considered simply decisive. Tannen has made a major contribution to showing that such stereotypes are formed early social development and, possibly, due to interhemispheric asymmetry. In all countries, on all continents, at any age and time, women and men behave differently. Tannen, whose specialty was English literature, identified these trends even in centuries-old manuscripts.
Nature or nurture?
Tannen's results are statistical calculations. She found that language patterns are influenced by many factors: region of residence, personality, profession, social class, age, ethnicity and background all influence how we use speech to discuss our personal safety. A social approach to children of different sexes is applied from the moment of their birth; they are often brought up in a society where prejudices formed over centuries are strong. It would be a miracle if we could ever move beyond this experience and rely on the principles of equality.
Given the influence of culture on behavior, it would be too easy to resort to a purely biological explanation for Tannen's observations. And since the biological factor greatly influences human behavior, it would be too simple to resort to an explanation from a social point of view. We do not know what is stronger in us - biological or social. This answer is discouraging. Cahill, Tannen and many other researchers have worked hard to find out. However, to assume that there is a relationship between genes, cells and behavior, if there is none, is not only wrong, but also dangerous. Think about Larry Summers.
Ideas
How can we use this data in the real world?
Look at facts through the prism of emotions.
Teachers and employers have a responsibility to take into account the emotional lives of men and women and should be aware of the following:
- Information experienced emotionally is better remembered.
- Men and women experience certain emotions differently.
- These differences are explained in terms of biological and social factors.
Implement a new gender-based seating policy in the classroom.
The teacher of my son's third grade explains the decline in results by the end of the year to stereotypes. Girls excel in humanities subjects, while boys perform better in mathematics and science. And this is in third grade! She knew that there was no statistical evidence of greater math ability in males. Why then was she guided by common misconceptions?
The teacher guessed that the problem was the social activity of the students during the lesson. It is very important here who answers the question she asks first. In language lessons, girls usually answer first. The other students react with a collective “me too.” The boys' reaction is hierarchical. Girls usually know the answer; boys generally don't, and they do what low-status males tend to do - shy away. The abyss becomes obvious. In mathematics and other natural disciplines, students are on par. Boys resort to the well-known “over all” behavior in an attempt to strengthen the hierarchy, which is based on primacy. At the same time, they also fight with everyone who is not at the top, including girls. Therefore, puzzled girls begin to avoid answering in these lessons. This is how the difference in results appears.
The teacher holds a meeting for the girls to test her suspicions. She wonders how they will act. Girls decide to study mathematics and science separately from boys. In the past, the teacher advocated for mixed classes, but now she is beginning to wonder about the appropriateness of such a position. If girls lose the battle with boys in third grade, there is every reason to assume that the situation is unlikely to change further. The teacher is forced to take note of this. It only took two weeks to close the gaps in learning outcomes.
Could this approach be used in classrooms around the world? In fact, the experiment does not yet speak of a universal rule - it is just a remark. Finding a pattern requires studying hundreds of classes and thousands of students over many years.
Formation of work teams based on gender
“Women are considered to be more emotional than men, both at home and at work. In my opinion, this is not a completely fair opinion.” I explained this figuratively by the fact that women perceive the emotional components of the situation using a greater number of input points (this is the point) and, accordingly, see it in better quality. They simply have more information to react to. If men had the same number of input points, their reaction would be exactly the same. The two men in the last row were even moved. After the lecture, I asked their opinion, fearing that I had offended them. But their answer stunned me. “For the first time in my professional career,” one of them explained, “I felt like I didn’t have to apologize for who I was.”
These words made me think that in the process of evolution different types emotional perception of the situation helped people conquer the world. Why is the business world deprived of this advantage? A team or work group that can simultaneously grasp the essence and account for all the details under pressure - like M&A specialists - is a match made in business heaven.
During trainings in companies, training situations are often arranged - for example, a mixed or single-sex working group is formed to participate in a project. Create teams of any composition, but first teach them about gender differences. You have four options. Will mixed teams of men and women perform better? Will trained groups perform better than untrained groups? Will these results remain consistent after, say, six months? You may find that a diverse team is more productive. At least with this development, men and women will have equal rights in decision-making at the negotiating table.
It is possible to create a work environment where gender differences are seen and valued. If this had been done earlier, maybe today more women would do science and engineering. We could break the glass ceiling and save companies a lot of money. And they would even help keep the job of the president of Harvard University.
*“Glass ceiling” is a term adopted in American management in the early 1980s to describe an invisible barrier limiting a woman’s career advancement. Note ed.
Summary
- Men have one X-chromosome, and in women - two, despite the fact that one of them is reserve.
- Genetically, women are more complex, since they are active X-Chromosomes of cells are a set of maternal and paternal cells. Men get X-chromosomes from the mother, and in y-chromosome contains less than 100 genes, while X-chromosome carries about 1500 genes.
- The structure and biochemical composition of the brain of a woman and a man are different - for example, men have a larger amygdala, and they produce serotonin faster. However, it is unknown whether these differences are significant.
- Men and women respond differently to extreme stress, with women engaging the left hemisphere amygdala and remembering details of emotions. Men use the right hemisphere amygdala and perceive the essence of the problem.
© Published with permission from the publisher
Gender psychology. Difference between men and women
The relationship between a man and a woman is an eternal topic and an inexhaustible source of mysteries. Scientists and poets, doctors and psychologists have been struggling for many centuries to solve the mystery: “The differences between men and women.” The role of men and women in society and in the family is not discussed only by the lazy. Yet gender psychology contains more questions than answers. What are the signs of a man and best qualities women? What kind of man does a woman need? What kind of women do men like?
You have probably thought about one of these dilemmas too. The popularity of search queries on the topic “Psychology of men and women” once again confirms the fact that we are different. Where does the difference between men and women come from? In science to this day there is no complete clarity on this issue. There are many interesting hypotheses and assumptions. And at the level of reliable facts, except for the well-known Y chromosome, which directs the development of the body of the unborn child towards masculinity, scientists have not found any significant difference between a man and a woman.
Men and women have virtually identical brains. It just works differently. From the point of view of the theory of division of functions, the psychology of men and women over the centuries has been formed under the influence of the difference in the responsibilities performed. Different functions require different training and determine the development of specific abilities, behavioral characteristics, and personality traits.
Our ancient ancestors had one main task - to survive. The role of men and women is to make their contribution to the solution of this common task. Men hunted and protected. Women ran the house and raised children. To fulfill “male” duties, such qualities of a man as courage, determination, perseverance, endurance were valued. To survive and feed his family, a primitive man urgently needed good physical data, the ability to navigate in space, reaction speed and a certain level of aggressiveness. The man was building a strategy.
Women's duties were never considered particularly difficult or dangerous. But there were always a lot of them.
A woman simultaneously needs to monitor the progress of a large number of small processes. That is why the qualities of women associated with emotionality developed. Emotions give a signal if something is going wrong somewhere. The child cried - anxiety. The man did not return from hunting on time - anxiety. Women's psychology developed in the direction of sensitivity to numerous minor factors. The woman needed intuition.
Our ancestors had no time to sort out the relationship between a man and a woman. The roles of men and women were clearly defined. Every man and every woman knew their function. Problem: “What kind of man does a woman need?” had a clear solution - the one that survived and brought more food. On the other hand, the attractiveness of a woman through the eyes of a man was the only determining factor for procreation. The union of a man and a woman was designed for survival. A man and a woman fought for life together, but each on their own front.
Representatives of the evolutionary theory of gender view the relationship between a man and a woman as a confrontation between variability and stability. A real man ensures progress. The characteristic of a man is a tendency to experiment, find new ways, and ensure adaptation to new conditions. The right man constantly trying, searching, inventing. Sometimes experiments lead to a discovery, but often dead ends are explored. That is why among men the brightest geniuses and greatest number alcoholics.
Genetics associate the role of a woman in society with the ability to preserve what already exists and as accurately as possible pass on to descendants behavioral models that have proven their effectiveness. A real woman does not strive for stratospheric heights, but also does not indulge in all serious things. She is guaranteed to survive at an average level of ability. A man takes risks, conquers, amazes the imagination. A woman beckons, attracts, entices. If we consider the relationship between a man and a woman from this perspective, the difference between men and women becomes obvious. The woman’s behavior becomes understandable and the man’s behavior becomes understandable.
Why do men become feminine and women become masculine?
Modern gender psychology is undergoing significant changes. Men and women are increasingly refusing to fulfill their gender roles, and thousand-year-old gender stereotypes are being broken. Relations between a man and a woman are complicated by mutual claims. Women complain that a real man has become an endangered species. It is increasingly being replaced by “house man”, “driven man” and “weak man”. 
Men never cease to be amazed at the transformations of the concept of “femininity”. An emancipated woman behaves like a man. Masculinity is gradually rising higher in the ranking: “The best qualities of a woman.” Where has the woman who understands men gone? “Women are stronger than men!” - representatives of the fair half of humanity proudly declare. Gender differences are being erased, the phrases “real man” and “real woman” are increasingly pronounced with a disdainful intonation.
Why modern men become feminine and women become masculine? There are several reasons:
1. Genetic mutations and hormonal imbalances determine the relationship between a man and a woman. Hormonal levels are influenced by heredity, the functioning of the thyroid gland and adrenal glands, inflammatory processes, and infectious diseases. It is no secret that hormone therapy is used in the treatment of many diseases. Hormonal disorders can be caused by chronic stress, smoking and drinking alcohol, and constant overeating. Negative Impact cause radiation and harmful production.
2. Miseducation distorts gender stereotypes. Modern boys have nowhere to adopt the behavior of a man. Babies spend more time with their mother. Educators kindergarten and school teachers are predominantly women. And even at universities, the percentage of female teachers is invariably higher. If a child grows up without a father, then in the family he can only take the qualities of a woman as a model. Unbalanced, overprotective female upbringing subjugates the qualities of a man. A woman’s inappropriate behavior can develop if a girl grows up in unfavorable conditions, when she literally has to struggle with everyday difficulties, make strong-willed decisions, and bear responsibility for her younger brothers.
3. Armed conflicts, tense political situation make adjustments to the relationship between men and women. When warriors are busy with their important and dangerous affairs, the man takes on the role Strong woman. But according to statistics, there are fewer men, they die earlier. It turns out, on the one hand, aggressiveness is a characteristic of a man. On the other hand, it is precisely because of this quality that men die more often. Whereas the qualities of a woman are more conducive to adaptation.
4. Changes in the sphere of production and labor market exacerbate gender differences. Innovative technology and new technologies do not require the use of brute male force. But such traditional qualities of a woman as cunning, attention to detail, intuition, the ability to respond to the smallest changes environment, often lead a man’s behavior to success. Female psychology shows itself well in personnel management and in saving resources. Becoming a manager, having felt the taste for victory, a woman often irrevocably loses her femininity. Coming home, a strong woman cannot throw off the role of a man and continues to command, give orders, and give instructions.
5. Too much free time undermines the roles of men and women. In the modern world, people are not faced with the task of physical survival. A woman does not need to go to the river to wash her clothes. Smart technology solves many everyday problems. There is no need for a man to spend hours tracking a mammoth. An advanced refrigerator will order food itself. The man and woman no longer understand why they need each other. A man can play the role of a woman, and a woman can play the role of a man.
How to restore harmony in the relationship between a man and a woman?
The changes that the psychology of men and women are currently undergoing are not a disaster. There is no need to panic as you watch gender roles shift. Everything that happens had to happen sooner or later. Any innovation always has some objective reason. The roles of men and women are changing in response to the challenges of modern reality. This means that you need to learn to find yourself in new circumstances.
Recommendations for women:
- Learn to pay less attention to the imperfections of the world. The pursuit of ideality can undoubtedly be useful. But sometimes a small imperfection does not spoil the overall picture, but adds a unique charm to it. The difference between a man and a woman is not a reason for scandal, but a great opportunity to look at the situation from a different point of view. 
- Stop re-educating men. Even if your titanic efforts are crowned with success, another woman may benefit from the results of your labor. Instead of nagging and endlessly guiding a man, take his example: enjoy every moment of life.
- Take a break from household chores and take care of yourself. Ideally clean plumbing and ironed bed linen best case scenario A meticulous mother-in-law will appreciate it. And every real man knows that a tortured facial expression and a twitching eye are not the best qualities of a woman.
Recommendations for men:
- Monitor the quality of relationships. The times when it was enough to win a woman once are long gone. Imagine that you have opened a bank account. You need to carefully monitor your contributions. Each sweet Nothing and an attentive look is an investment in a happy future, strong and trusting relationships between a man and a woman.
- Don't pretend that nothing is happening. Every resentment released “on the brakes” is a huge hole that can easily drown even a very strong union of a man and a woman. Remember: women never forget anything. The relationship between a man and a woman is a thin web. You need to treat it with care and attention.
- Look deeper. Learn to see the situation from the outside. Dear ladies are great experts in all kinds of provocations. But women rarely manage to correctly calculate the consequences. In the process of sorting out the relationship, the brawler may get carried away and then disaster cannot be avoided. A man should not react to words. Try to grasp the woman’s mood, understand what she wants. If the question is not particularly important, you can play along. In some places it’s useful to turn everything into a joke, in others it’s useful to switch attention. In any case, try your best to stay on the surface.
And in conclusion, I would like to once again draw attention to one psychological pattern: relationships between a man and a woman do not work out when one of the partners loses harmony with himself. Dissatisfaction with a relationship is, first of all, dissatisfaction with oneself. So, first achieve inner harmony, and only then take on someone else. General recommendation for everyone: do not pay attention to gender stereotypes that have developed in society. Don't try to fit your chosen one to existing standards. Determine your own role that is most comfortable for you and allow your partner to complement your relationship as they see fit.
Psychologists began studying gender differences at the end of the 19th century, but until the 1970s. they were mostly engaged in demonstrating the differences between the sexes and justifying them different attitude to men and to women (Denmark & Fernandez, 1993).
It must still be remembered that even if such differences are found, they are relatively small, usually no more than 10%, and in most cases the distributions of male and female samples are 90% identical (Basow, 1986; Hyde, 1991; Maccoby & Jacklin, 1974; Pleck, 1978; Spens et al., 1974).
As Hyde (1991) noted, when we say that men and women differ significantly on a particular trait, this does not necessarily mean that the difference is large.
Meta-analysis is a statistical technique that combines information from multiple studies to arrive at an overall estimate of the magnitude of differences between groups; in other words, it is an analysis of the results of other analyzes (for detailed descriptions and discussions involving mathematical statisticians, see Glass et al., 1981; Hyde & Linn, 1986; Rosenthal, 1991.)
Empathy and gender differences
Although all the evidence for gender differences in empathy is not clear, Hall's (1984) analysis of 125 studies of gender differences in sensitivity to nonverbal cues found:
- Women in general have a better ability to read the emotions of others than men.
If women are better decoders, then it would be logical to expect that their levels of empathy would be higher (Eysenberg et al., 1989).
However, let's not forget that most studies did not find gender differences in empathy, and if they did appear, they were very weak.
Emotionality and gender differences
Eisenberg and co-authors (Eisenberg et al., 1989) found fairly modest gender differences in facial expressions and in subjects’ self-reports, suggesting that women were more responsive.
One of the most interesting findings: gender differences increased with age.
In children up to school age Very few gender differences were found, but by the second grade they began to appear more and more openly.
Other studies involving adolescents (Stapley & Haviland, 1989), college students (Snell, 1989), and adults (Saurer & Eisler, 1990) have found that women are more emotionally expressive than men.
These studies, especially those that locate major turning points in childhood, suggest that through the process of socialization we learn to express or suppress emotions in socially acceptable ways.
Our society has different expectations and norms regarding emotional expression for men and women. These different expectations are passed on to us throughout our lives.
Research (Brody, 1985; Eisenberg et al., 1989) does show that sex differences in emotionality are generally greater in adolescents and adults than in children. It takes time to create them.
This gives grounds to say (S. Bern, 2001) that emotionality (i.e., the strength of experienced emotions) is the same in men and women, but the degree of their external expression (emo/facial expression) is different.
Anger (anger) in men and women
E. Maccoby and C. Jacklin (E. Maccoby, C. Jacklin, 1974), based on an analysis of a number of experimental studies, came to the conclusion that in the first years of life there are no differences in the frequency and duration of this negative emotional reaction in boys and girls, but with With age, their frequency and intensity increase in boys, and decrease in girls. The authors explain this by saying that girls, having the same aggressive tendencies as boys, are afraid to show them because of possible punishment, while others view boys’ aggression more favorably.
Sadness in men and women
L.V. Kulikov revealed significant differences in self-assessment of sadness: among women it is higher. The same thing was revealed by M. S. Ponomareva, with the only difference that among younger schoolchildren, the tendency to sadness is more pronounced in boys.
Manifestation of fears in men and women
According to A.I. Zakharov (1995), the number of fears (i.e., what they are afraid of) is greater among girls than among boys. Adult men have a more pronounced fear of heights, and adult women have a more pronounced fear of the death of their parents. Women also have a much greater fear of war, fear of doing something wrong or not having time to do it. Girls have 6 times more imaginary fears than boys.
Manifestation of joy in men and women
The tendency to joy, according to M. S. Ponomareva, did not reveal clear gender differences: at the ages of 8-9, 12-13 and 16-17 years it is expressed equally in boys and girls, and at the ages of 10-11 and 14-15 years this tendency is more pronounced in girls.
The literature notes greater emotional sensitivity and emotional instability of women. The study of this issue by E. P. Ilyin and V. G. Pinigin (2001) on schoolchildren and students using self-assessments of life manifestations of emotions showed that females are clearly superior to males in all age groups by emotional excitability, to a lesser extent by intensity, and to an even lesser extent by the duration of preservation of emotions and emotional stability.
Emotional memory in men and women
Yu. L. Khanin (1978) obtained data that can be interpreted in favor of the conclusion that women have better emotional memory than men.
True, the identified differences between men and women in remembering their experiences can be explained by worse reflection in men than in women, and lower severity of anxiety in men than in women, but all this also needs proof.
Guilt and conscientiousness. The gender factor has strong influence on the experience of guilt: in men it is less pronounced and they talk much less often about the experience of guilt than women. (L.V. Kulikov, 1997; V.S. Savina, 2001).
Differences in anxiety (emotional stability) between men and women
The fact of greater anxiety and neuroticism (leading to emotional lability, instability) of females compared to males has been found in many studies (see, for example, the works of L.P. Badanina, 1996; V.D. Kuzakova, 1975; A. I. Vinokurova, 1996). However, despite greater anxiety, women are more capable of suppressing it than men (K. D. Shafranskaya, 1973).
Problematic preoccupation (anxiety) in men and women
The greater anxiety and neuroticism of females is also manifested in their greater problem preoccupation.
S. Archer (1985) found that 42% of girls are concerned about the inability to combine family and work in the future. There were no such concerns among the young men. Seventy-five percent of boys answered that nothing bothers them, while only 16% of girls were the same.
According to A.G. Gretsov (2000), problematic concerns in almost all aspects of life are more expressed among girls than among boys (Table 4.3).
Envy in men and women
According to N. E. Serebryakova (2001), who applied an original technique for identifying envy in relation to the success of another in various life situations, women have higher envy than men, excluding career; no differences between men and women were identified here.
Jealousy in men and women
Men are most jealous when their partner has sex with someone else. Women feel the most jealousy when their partner becomes emotionally attached to another. Psychologists believe that these differences reflect men's concerns about the certainty of their paternity and women's need for care from a partner (Buss, 1994). However, this is hardly the only issue.
Touchiness in men and women
With regard to touchiness, no significant gender differences were identified, according to P. A. Kovalev.
Abilities of men and women
Attention in men and women
M. S. Egorova and N. F. Shlyakhta (1987)
When performing attention tasks, girls focus on speed, and boys focus on accuracy of work.
At the ages of 22 to 33 years, no significant differences were found between men and women in concentration and attention span.
In tasks where you need to quickly perceive details and often switch attention, women show greater efficiency than men (D. Andrew, D. Paterson, 1946)
Sensory-perceptual abilities
Perception in men and women
There are noticeable differences between male and female subjects regarding the perception of time and space. Thus, according to G.S. Shlyakhtin (1997), women overestimate the duration of time intervals (from 3 to 40 s) to a greater extent than men, i.e., for women, time passes faster.
The attitude of men towards their birthday is also peculiar. For them, it is a starting point, a time to take stock and set new goals for the future. If by this moment the score is not in the man’s favor, deep stress sets in, provoking illnesses, the outcome of which can be the saddest. It is no coincidence that studies based on more than 3 million certificates of people who died of natural causes showed that most men die within last week before the birthday.
As S. Witelson (1976) notes, researchers, as a rule, are unanimous that tasks on spatial and temporal orientation are performed with greater success and with less mental effort by males.
Observation in men and women
As shown in the book “Issues of Practical Psychodiagnostics...” (1984), observation is higher in males, *and it is no coincidence, obviously, that criminologists point out that erroneous testimony is more common among females: men more accurately convey the phenomena of the surrounding world, testimony the same women often do not correspond to reality.
Intelligence in men and women
The theory of H. Ellis (H. Ellis, 1904), according to which the spread of intelligence levels is greater among men than among women. This means that women for the most part have an average level of intelligence, while among men average intelligence is less common than among women, but among them there are more gifted and mentally retarded.
The American anthropologist E. Montague, in his book “The Natural Superiority of Women,” wrote that on average women have a higher IQ than men, and they retain it better in old age.
This inversion is explained by the fact that the morphological maturation of the brain in girls occurs faster (T. P. Khrizman, V. D. Eremeeva, 1984; D. Waber, 1976), therefore, at the age of 5-10 years, they are ahead of boys in intellectual abilities. Then males not only catch up in terms of intellectual development females, but also superior to them (Table 5.2, given after E.I. Stepanova, 2000).
M. M. Garifullina and E. R. Paets (1977) revealed that in men, imaginative thinking has a higher level of development.
V.P. Bagrunov (1984) notes that men are better at solving new intellectual and sensorimotor tasks, however, with training and stereotyping, these gender differences are leveled out. Moreover, the intellectual and sensorimotor activity of women is more amenable to changes during education and training, as a result of which women achieve better results in activities that require the development of stereotypical professional skills, this author claims.
Spatial abilities in men and women
Performance intelligence tests, which largely depend on spatial rather than verbal abilities, are also better performed by boys (A. Macmeeken, 1939).
However, in reality, not only men may not understand women, but also women may not understand men, since behind the same concepts and phrases both may have different semantic content and different attitudes. This is shown in the work of A.V. Vizgina
Creativity in men and women
M. Kostik (1954) and E. Hilgard et al. (1954) identified the advantage of males (school graduates and students) in the transfer of learning (application of skills and knowledge to new situations).
E. Sweeney (1953) found a significant male superiority in “restructuring,” that is, abandoning the original approach and organizing facts in a new way. This was found in male and female groups matched for general mental, verbal and mathematical abilities.
N.V. Gavryushkina (2001) studied creativity in boys and girls aged 9-12 years old and obtained slightly different data: non-verbal creativity is the same in boys and girls, but verbal creativity is higher in girls and due to it their overall creativity is higher ( Fig. 5.3).
Critical thinking in men and women
Some authors express the opinion that men are more critical than women. M. D. Alexandrova (1974), analyzing the data of American authors, concludes that the decrease in critical thinking in men begins after 30 years, in women - later (after 40 years), but it occurs more sharply.
Memory in men and women
A volumetric sex-age study of memory was carried out by V.F. Konovalov et al. (1987). Short-term memory for learning numbers from 0 to 9 was studied. At the age of 5-10 years, memorization of numbers was best in girls (Fig. 5.6). At the age of 15-17 years, no differences were found between boys and girls. At the age of 18-35 years, the best memory performance was already in men, since their memory growth was still observed, while in women, memory remained at the level of 15-17 years. /memorization depends on motivation and interests/direction/.
According to Kazan psychologists, the advantage of men or women (students) in short term memory depends on the material being learned: when memorizing numbers, men have an advantage, and when memorizing words, women have an advantage, but when memorizing words, these differences are insignificant.
According to V.P. Umnov (1979), female students aged 18-21 years have better figurative memory than students of the same age.
Verbal abilities in men and women
Female superiority in verbal, or linguistic, functions is noted from infancy to adulthood (D. McCarthy, 1954; L. Terman, L. Tyler, 1954).
A higher rate of articulation in women compared to men was revealed by E. M. Danilovich (1982).
That side of speech that is associated with search: finding word associations, solving crossword puzzles - is better represented in boys and men. For example, E.I. Stepanova provides data on differences between men and women in the speed and accuracy of associative reactions to words. At the age of 18-19 years, men responded faster and more accurately.
Speech disorders are more common in boys.
Artistic and musical abilities in men and women
Girls preschool age As a rule, they draw in more detail than boys of the same age (A. Gesell et al., 1940).
No significant sex differences were found in auditory discrimination and musical memory (P. Farnsworth, 1931).
So, let's summarize some results. Women are superior to men in speed of perception, counting and fluency of speech. Men have some advantages in spatial and temporal orientation, understanding mechanical relationships and mathematical reasoning (J. Levy, R. C. Gur, 1980; M. Mac Gee, 1979; J. Mac Glone, 1980).
Aggression in men and women
Differences in aggressive behavior are among the most reliable gender differences, but, like the others we have examined, they are not nearly as large or as clearly related to biological differences as one might expect.
In their review of the literature on gender differences, Maccoby & Jacklin (1974) concluded that aggression is the only social behavior for which there is evidence of clear sex differences.
All three meta-analyses of psychological literature conducted in the 1980s. (Eagly & Steffen, 1986; Hyde, 1984 b; Hyde, 1986) also concluded that there are gender differences in aggressive behavior.
However, Eagly and Steffen (1986) concluded that for adults these differences are very small.
According to Hyde (1984b), which contains a large number of studies conducted on child samples: only 2 to 5% of all cases aggressive behavior can be explained by gender (i.e. 95 to 98% comes from other sources).
Part of our distorted perception of gender differences in aggression can be explained by the fact that the vast majority of rapists and murderers are men. However, as Burbank (1994) quite rightly noted, such actions are performed by a very small proportion of men. Taking these extremes into account, the behavior of most men is similar to the behavior of most women. Another reason we think men are more aggressive is our cultural belief that higher levels of testosterone in the blood make them so. In fact, there is no convincing experimental evidence yet for the existence of a testosterone-aggression connection in humans (Bjorkvist, 1994).
An article by Eagly (1978) states that among 22 studies on the topic conducted and published before 1970, 32% indicated greater susceptibility in women, while of the 40 studies published after 1970, only 8% found the same differences.
She observed that the social-psychological influence of biological sex appears to depend on cultural context.
Eagly also concluded that, given that we tend to defer to the opinions of others when we are unsure of our positions or abilities, the largest sex differences will be found in studies that use topics in which members of one gender are better versed.
For example, a number of early studies of gender differences drew on military and political knowledge (Eagly, 1978). Sistrunk & McDavid (1971) and Goldberg (1974, 1975) found that when feminine topics were discussed, men were more likely to conform than women, and vice versa.
Maupin & Fischer (1989) also concluded that the resulting gender differences in susceptibility are influenced by the following factors: whether the task is associated in any way with gender and whether men (or women) have a clear superiority in this area .
Generally recognized, scientifically based psychological differences between representatives of the two sexes:
Differences in the cognitive sphere of men and women
the fact that there are sex differences in verbal, spatial and mathematical abilities.
Women have better developed verbal abilities, while men have better spatial and mathematical abilities. The smallest differences were found in verbal abilities in favor of women, the largest in spatial processing of information and in favor of men. When it comes to differences in math ability, the results are mixed.
When it comes to school age, the presence of gender differences in mathematical abilities has not been proven, at the same time, the results obtained on a student sample show that young people generally perform tasks more successfully than girls.
Social behavior of men and women
men are characterized by a higher level of development of such traits as aggressiveness and dominance, and women are characterized by friendliness and sociability.
Men are characterized by a strong tendency towards independence, while women are oriented towards interdependence, which in the context of an authoritarian society often transforms into dependence.
Women are more socially oriented, more clearly aware of the connections that unite people and make their communication more trusting. Men, on the other hand, strive for independence by avoiding dependence.
Attitudes to the surrounding world of men and women
The male attitude is characterized by assertiveness, self-confidence, and control orientation.
The female version of the attitude towards the outside world is characterized by a focus on maintaining established types of interactions with people.
Social roles of men and women
For women, family roles are more significant, and for men, professional roles. The female role in the family is more related to caring for family members; Professional status plays a central role in male self-identification.
So, numerous studies have convincingly proven that even the actual differences between men and women turn out to be very small and often do not exceed 5%. In fact, between men and women in psychological characteristics there are far more similarities than differences.
In their famous review, Maccoby & Jacklin (1974) identified only four psychological differences between the sexes (spatial ability, mathematical ability, language skills, and aggressiveness). Psychology writers typically refer to these four differences, making only passing or sometimes no mention of the fact that men and women are much more similar (Unger, 1988), and largely silent on the fact that recent findings research, these differences turned out to be very small and situation-specific (this is what will be discussed in this chapter).
Sexual dimorphism
Sex differences in the manifestation of the properties of the nervous system and temperament
According to A. M. Sukhareva (1972), the increase with age in the number of people with high and average strength of the nervous system is expressed in both males and females, but in the latter it is more pronounced (due to the fact that girls are 7- There are more 8-year-olds with a weak nervous system than boys of the same age, and at the age of 18-25 there are no differences between males and females in the number of people with a strong and weak nervous system)
Mobility of nervous processes in men and women
According to N. E. Vysotskaya (1972) and A. G. Pinchukova (1974), among boys 7-16 years old the number of persons with mobility of both excitation and inhibition is greater than among girls. Then, with the mobility of arousal, there are more women.
There are no significant differences between boys and girls of school age in terms of “external” balance. Before puberty, there are slightly more individuals with a predominance of inhibition among girls, as well as after it. At puberty, there are more people with predominant inhibition among boys. This may be due to the fact that this period begins earlier in girls and, therefore, the number of individuals with a predominance of inhibition decreases earlier (due to a shift in the balance towards excitation). In terms of the number of persons with a predominance of excitement, there were practically no differences between males and females in all age groups
Lability in men and women
According to E.V. Voronin (1984), there are no significant differences in lability between men and women: lability to light was on average 39.2 and 38.9 units, respectively, and to sound - 75.9 and 74.5 units .
However, N.M. Peysakhov and A.O. Prokhorov (1975) found statistically significant differences in CFC (critical flicker frequency) in favor of men.
Differences in temperament between men and women
I. M. Vladimirova (2001), using D. Keirsey’s questionnaire to identify temperament types, found that in the sample of men there were twice as many people of the sensory planning (SJ) type and four times as many of the intuitive thinking (NT) type, in the group of women - twice as many persons of intuitive emotional (NF) type. The girls turned out to be more extroverted (E), emotional (F), with more developed intuition(N), and more spontaneous (P) than boys. The young men were distinguished by their mentality (T) and planning (J).
According to N. Gerasimova (1998), the sociability of women 20-25 years old is significantly higher than that of men of the same age.
N. Geschwind (1978) believes that there is a male brain and a female brain. He argues that testosterone during human fetal development slows down the development of the left hemisphere of the brain. The consequence of this is an increase in the right hemisphere in males. Thus, it is they who are destined to become outstanding musicians, artists, and mathematicians. This conclusion seems to be confirmed by the data of V.D. Eremeeva and T.P. Khrizman (2001): in a mass school, boys of the right hemisphere type (“artists”) and girls of the left hemisphere (“thinkers”) are more successful in the primary grades. However, in the gymnasium, where in the first grade foreign language and the subjects are taught by different teachers, for boys the picture is the opposite: left-hemisphere students learn more successfully, not right-hemisphere students.
Comparing their data with the data of other scientists, V.F. Konovalov and N.A. Otmakhova came to the conclusion that the left hemisphere of both men and women is specialized in the same way, namely for analytical, sequential verbal-logical thinking. The right hemisphere in men is more specialized in analogue, figurative, spatial thinking, which is less represented in women due to its participation in speech behavior. In other words, the authors conclude, the specialization of the right hemisphere is different in men and women.
The high significance of the entire spectrum of objective and subjective relationships between a man and a woman has remained the subject of the closest attention from thinkers, philosophers, and psychologists for centuries. With the discovery of the category of gender, differences in the perception and interpretation of the surrounding reality, the implementation of behavioral strategies by men and women are considered not from the standpoint of biodeterminism, but as socioculturally determined categories.
Definition 1
In other words, gender differences are the result of socialization, upbringing, and personality formation.
The role of biological factors in the formation of gender differences
In modern psychological science, two opposing approaches to understanding the root cause of the formation of gender differences are clearly distinguished. Proponents of the biological approach emphasize the leading role of biological factors in the development of gender differences between men and women.
In the concept of supporters of biodeterminism, differences in the implementation of perception and interpretation of social phenomena are a continuation of biological differences.
Since the foundation for the development of the future man and woman are genetic prerequisites, social factors are perceived as secondary, a priority role is given to hormonal levels, differences in the development of the corpus callosum and other genetic factors.
As a result of differences in brain organization, representatives of opposite sexes show differences in the organization of various psychological functions.
The role of social factors in the process of formation of gender differences
Opponents of the concept of biodeterminism take the opposite position, pointing to the priority role of social factors in the process of personality formation, and, accordingly, gender differences.
Definition 2
Gender, within the framework of this approach, is perceived exclusively as an initial stimulus, a signal for the use of certain educational measures.
It is no secret that the attitude of parents towards a newborn differs significantly depending on the gender of the child. Depending on the dominant and socially approved specific stage historical development of society gender stereotypes parents organize the subject-spatial environment accordingly, choose clothing, means and methods of education. Thus, from the first days of life, parents’ stereotypical perception of the child’s gender forms stereotypical expectations and stereotypical upbringing of the personality of the newborn, who “absorbs” sex-role, gender stereotypes of thinking and behavior.
Definition 3
Synthesizing both approaches, we can conclude that gender differences are based on objective biological factors, however, the degree of expression of these differences is determined by the specificity and direction of social factors.
Genetic, cerebral, endocrine factors influence not the development of gender psychological differences between men and women, but the level of motor and psychological activity of the body. Motor activity, speed of reactions, excitability, etc. are directly related to biological factors. The biologically determined activity of reactive, mental reactions acts as the foundation, the source material for the formation, development and implementation various forms self-expression in a social context.
The role of society in the formation of gender differences
The implementation of various forms of self-expression in a social context models behavior, a behavioral strategy, the structure of which identifies motives, goals, values and means that are formed under the influence of society and the cultural model. It is society that determines the boundaries and means of manifestation of the biological and psychological activity of the individual.
In turn, culture is understood as a system of signs with the help of which a person designates his natural, personal qualities, gives them a socially significant meaning.
It is culture that acts as a system-forming feature of behavior, the basis for classification, female, male, neutral characteristics.
Definition 4
Thus, gender differences are the result of the interaction of biological and social factors in a certain social context, under the influence of which a set of gender stereotypes is formed that determine the perception of reality and the implementation of behavior by an individual.