Gender stereotypes are certain general ideas about the role of each gender in society. Gender roles are generally neither positive nor negative, but simply generalize roughly masculine and feminine qualities. Since each person has individual characteristics, thoughts and feelings, these stereotypes may not be true in some specific situations. In addition, some aspects of them periodically become outdated as society develops and prevailing ideas about what representatives of different sexes can and cannot do change.

While most people understand that stereotypes are not always true, they often make assumptions based on gender anyway. There are many stereotypes, for example that women are in a hurry to get married, and men love sports. Ideas about gender roles are imposed on us through the media and magazines, in advertising

In this article we will look at the most common clichés about the social roles of the sexes. Below are examples of some of the most traditional gender stereotypes that apply to men and women today.

Female gender stereotypes

Gender stereotypes begin, for example, when a child is born. As soon as we find out it's a girl, we immediately start decorating the children's room in pink, filling it with butterflies and Barbie dolls. We think that our daughter will be a typical “girly girl” and fill her closet with dresses, boxes of toys and a tea set for tea parties with dolls. What are we actually doing? Many parents do not realize that they are making their child into a typical “Beautiful Lady.” We teach her that girls should wear dresses, cook food, take care of children, these are the biggest and most common stereotypes towards women.

Have you ever watched a little girl playing at home? Even at the age of five or six, she understands well that her task will be to sit at home and babysit the child, her husband must go to work, and dinner must be ready for his return, just like with people. This is another stereotype, women stay at home and men go to work. Although there are millions of gender stereotypes about women, this is by far the oldest and most discussed by feminists. Here are some other views:

• women should have “clean jobs” such as secretaries, teachers and librarians;
• women – nurses and doctors;
• women are not as strong as men;
• women should earn less than men;
• women should not receive a good education;
• women do not play sports;
• women are not politicians;
• women are quieter than men and are not designed for speaking;
• women must obey and do what men say;
• women must cook and do housework;
• women are responsible for raising children;
• women lack technical skills and do not understand car repair or other stereotypically male tasks;
• women are meant to be “princesses chained in a castle” or simply to be in the role of a victim, but never as a heroine;
• women should look beautiful;
• women love to sing and dance;
• women don't play video games;
• women flirt;
• women never come up first to meet people.

Male gender stereotypes

Typical male stereotypes, girls think that a guy, for example, has a huge mess in his house, there are boots and dirty clothes in the closet, and all this is scattered around the room. Toys for boys consist of trucks, dinosaurs, action figures and video games. From childhood, boys are taught to be tough, to be strong, and to protect themselves.

Are you surprised to hear that most parents admit that they don't teach their sons how to wash dishes or fold laundry? Instead, they are taught to take out the trash or do some heavy yard work, while cutting off other housework and labeling it as "women's work." This is the main stereotype, but most families raise children this way. Men have to do the dirty work and anything that requires muscles, they also have to go to work and provide for the family. Little boys see this stereotype and follow it.

Other gender stereotypes regarding men:

• men enjoy working on cars;
• men cannot be in the role of “nurse”, they can only be doctors;
• men do “dirty work” such as construction and mechanics, they are not secretaries, teachers, or beauticians;
• men do not do housework and they are not responsible for childcare;
• men play video games;
• men play sports;
• men love outdoor recreation, such as hiking and fishing;
• men are responsible for everything;
• husbands tell their wives what to do;
• men are lazy and dirty;
• men are good at math;
• men are precisely those people who work in science, technology and other technical fields;
• men don't cook or sew.

Think about your acquaintances and friends of both sexes, and how many stereotypes apply to them or to yourself? Of course, all these stereotypes do not apply to every individual man or woman. They become stereotypes because we consider them the norm and expect them from every man or woman. Of course, gender stereotypes change along with the development of society, and nowadays you will not be surprised when a woman starts her own business, while a man stays at home with children.

Gender stereotypes in jokes

For the representation of women, perhaps the most characteristic are entire cycles of jokes about blondes and women driving. They depict both a weak level of technical proficiency and general frivolity. Examples:

A young lady stops her car in front of a red traffic light.
Yellow lights up - the lady is standing, green
- the lady is standing. The red light is on again, other cars are honking from behind... A policeman slowly approaches and politely says:
– Madam would like some other color?..

- Monya, this pedestrian is a suicide! He has been running in front of our car for 10 minutes. What should I do?
- Rose, try to move off the sidewalk onto the road...

Male stereotypes are perhaps not so clearly represented. Most likely due to the fact that it is men who come up with jokes. Most often they describe the preferences of men. For example:

A fisherman sits and catches fish in winter. Freezing.
Another fisherman passes by and asks:
- Man, what are you doing? It's so cold outside, and you're without a hat.
- Yeah, I was sitting like that yesterday in a hat, they offered me a drink, but I didn’t hear.

(c) Sofia Kotikhina, 2017

student of the South Ural State Humanitarian and Pedagogical University,

Chelyabinsk, Russia

Quite often we hear phrases like “Well, you’re a girl...”, “Like a real man, you should...”, “All men...”. I have always been irritated by such an absolutized, simplified form of thinking among people, when gender is a criterion for the correctness or incorrectness of a person’s actions and behavior. I decided to look into this issue and find out whether my negative attitude towards the problem is in vain and how good or bad it is to have gender stereotypes?

First, let's answer the question, why are stereotypes needed at all? The first obvious answer is: “To make life easier.” As a quote I like says: “Stereotypes are like crutches with healthy legs: you can walk on them, but you can’t run on them.”. Of course, stereotypes make life easier - it’s easy to rely on them in the absence of your own knowledge and opinion and the reluctance to enrich yourself with new information.

But, in my opinion, simplicity here is a very dubious virtue.

Stereotypes are often distort our perception reality and as a result lead to the wrong conclusion about a person. With this method of perception, we look at those around us as if from a distance, through the prism of ready-made sets of characteristics generated by the average, philistine opinion, and thereby deprive ourselves of the opportunity to form our own judgment.

For example, we see a full-figured woman carrying a box of chocolates.

The first unconscious thought will be that she is going to eat the whole box by herself. Or a young man does not give up his seat to his grandmother on public transport. We don’t think that he could be tired after a hard day at work, but we immediately consider him arrogant and ill-mannered.

Of course, stereotypes are not always false. But this does not negate the unreasonableness of raising them to the Absolute, right?

I believe that one of the advantages of stereotypes is their humorous side. Human behavior that coincides with some stereotypical image is often funny - grumpy grandmothers on a bench at the entrance, airborne troops swimming in a fountain, a student with big glasses or a Russian person (according to national stereotypes) must wear earflaps and a balalaika in one hand and a bottle of vodka in the other. This allows negative traits to be identified, made obvious, and ridiculed. Active denial of any behavior sometimes causes a desire to repeat this behavior in order to “not be like everyone else,” to demonstrate one’s independence and individuality. Ridicule shows that such behavior causes disdain, that society considers such behavior stupid, and looking like a fool is much worse than being a rebel.

But let's return to the topic of gender stereotypes: what do scientists say about them?

Gender differences have long attracted the attention of scientists. For a long time, the main goal of researchers was to search for scientific evidence of gender stereotypes, that is, a convincing justification for the existing roles of men and women. However, this goal was not achieved: most studies found many more similarities between men and women, and the minor differences identified often have social reasons. For example, men report that, unlike women,

do not consider themselves to be very empathic, but measurements of physiological and facial reactions show that there are no differences in empathic reactions between men and women. Other studies find that men experience anger, sadness, and fear as often as women, but are more likely to express predominantly anger and suppress other negative emotions; women, on the contrary, suppress anger and express sadness and fear. A great demonstration of the influence of society on people's behavior, isn't it?

How did they appear?

The roots of gender stereotypes lie in the traditional distribution of roles in the family. Historically, a man should be a strong, courageous, determined worker who will not leave his family hungry, and a woman should be a feminine, thrifty and caring mother. Today, despite the relative evolution of views, many are simply too lazy to move away from these traditions and accept something new. Thus, we agree with gender roles and follow them all the time, somehow becoming objects of gender stereotypes.

Speaking about male and female behavioral characteristics, one cannot help but touch upon the topic of fashion.

In most cases, fashion influences a person’s attitude towards himself

and those around you; and although many will deny this fact, their consumer preferences confirm this. The growing importance of fashion as a historical phenomenon -

one of the main features of modernity, namely the departure from traditions and the endless need for the “new”. As Walter Benjamin writes: “Fashion is the eternal return of the new.”

When we talk about fashion, most often we mean fashion in clothing, but it should be understood that this concept is much broader. Fashion is a large-scale social mechanism that manifests itself in almost all spheres of human activity. Not only things become fashionable, but also behavior patterns, forms of communication, even bad habits. But in our case, I would like to pay more attention to clothes.

The range of opportunities for self-realization for girls in this area is much wider:

a colorful skirt or dress one day, jeans with a plain T-shirt another, visiting the men's clothing department and buying something for yourself there - all this is perceived as the norm. If a guy (especially in our country) puts on a T-shirt that is usually classified as women's (shiny, translucent, tight, etc.), uses cosmetics or skin care products,

At the very least, they will start to “look askance” at him. For some reason, it is acceptable for a woman to be like a man, but for a man to be like a woman is shameful.

This doesn't seem entirely fair to me. Doesn't this mean all guys should start wearing short skirts and shiny t-shirts? Today this is considered abnormal. But the paradox of social influence is that the same thing was once considered the norm. Let's remember traditional Scottish kilts or men's fashion of the 70s (see clippings from magazines of that time).

Published in: Personality. Culture. Society. T.V. Issue 1-2 (15-16). 2003. pp. 120-139. Stereotypes and Stereotyping as a Problem of Gender Studies // Personality. Culture, Society. V.5. part 1-2 (15-16), p. 120-139. In Russian. (1)

The problem of gender stereotyping is one of those that has largely stimulated the development of women's and then gender studies. In justifying the position of the patriarchal nature of society and discrimination against women, advocates of women's equality are faced with the need to answer the question of why this type of injustice does not cause protest, including among the majority of women themselves. The explanation of this paradox included such concepts as prejudice, prejudices, stereotypes. This article is devoted to the main methodological problems of gender stereotyping. What are the factors, mechanisms of gender stereotyping and what are the content, properties, functions of gender stereotypes, their impact on gender relations and social relations in general? Finally, is it possible to talk about the specific features of gender stereotypes?

Obviously, the answer to these questions depends to a large extent on how the nature of stereotypes is understood, so we would like to begin the article with a review of the current academic literature on the problems of stereotypes and stereotyping.

1. Stereotypes and stereotyping: main methodological approaches

The word "stereotype" comes from typographic vocabulary, in which it was used in the 18th century to designate a form for printing prints. (2) The concept of a stereotype was introduced into scientific circulation by the American journalist W. Lippman in his work “Public Opinion” (1922). Lippman understood stereotypes as culturally created images of people from other groups that are designed to explain and evaluate the behavior of these people, and interpreted stereotypes as a selective and inaccurate way of perceiving reality, leading to its simplification and giving rise to prejudices. At the same time, Lippman expressed the idea that stereotypes are inevitable, being an objective function of the interaction between a person and the reality around him and a projection of a person’s own feelings and values ​​onto the world. (3)

In subsequent decades, the concept of a stereotype, interpreted as a rigid, simplified and prejudiced generalization, was increasingly involved in scientific circulation. (For example, this definition was shared by J. Allport in his work “The Nature of Prejudice” (1954), which became an important milestone in the development of the theory of stereotype). (4) However, if until the sixties of the 20th century, researchers of stereotypes were most interested in answering the question to what extent they correspond to reality, then in subsequent decades the study of the content of stereotypes fades into the background, giving way to another problem - identifying the causes and functions of stereotyping , as well as possible ways to change stereotypes.

In three-quarters of a century of research on stereotypes, many theories have been proposed; We will try to highlight the main approaches, being aware of the inevitability of a certain simplification in the process of such classification.

First of all, one should distinguish between theories in which stereotyping is explained by the existence of stereotypes at the level of culture as a whole, and theories in which the emphasis is placed on individual personality characteristics. (5) Supporters of the latter see ways of possibly overcoming stereotypes not in changing cultural standards or the real status of the group undergoing stereotyping, as adherents of the cultural approach, but rather in changing the views of the individual - the subject of stereotyping. (Among them is the theory of the authoritarian personality of T. Adorno and his colleagues (E. Frenkel-Bryusvik, D. Levinson and R. Sanford) (50s), psychodynamic theories, theories of symbolic racism (70s), dissociation model (90s) (6)

Cognitive approaches derive stereotyping from the laws of the cognition process: the emphasis is on the processes of perception and categorization (G. Tajfel, D. Taylor, S.T. Fiske, T.K. Trailer, D.M. Mackie, D.L. Hamilton and others). A person does not have the opportunity to consider each group as unique, so he is forced to rely on stereotypes, which already contain the necessary information. Categorization is determined by the individual’s need to create precisely those ideas that would be acceptable in his physical and social environment and which would be a projection of the values ​​of this individual. From this point of view, stereotypes cannot be considered irrational, since they reflect the rational selectivity of the perceiver. The possibility of inaccuracy of stereotypes is also recognized - the process of cognition itself is imperfect, and errors are possible in it.

Different concepts within the cognitive approach emphasize various aspects of stereotyping - the importance of individual perception and social reproduction of stereotypes, the role of values, knowledge, experience, expectations in the perception of outgroups.

The position of G. Tajfel deserves special mention, who, on the one hand, was an adherent of the cognitive approach, and, on the other, interpreted stereotypes within the framework of intergroup relations and conflict theory. Stereotypes, according to G. Tajfel, are determined by the perception of people in terms of their group membership. As a result of the categorization process, there is an emphasis on group differences between Self and Other, and only then, on the basis of this, discrimination against outgroups occurs. Thus, stereotypes represent a function of the interaction between Self and Other; they are mobile, situational and depend on the context of intergroup relations; therefore, G. Tajfel believes, changing stereotypes is possible only through changing intergroup relations. (8)

G. Tajfel solved the problem of the motives for stereotyping based on the theory of conflict. However, if in the theory of conflict by M. Sherif and D. Campbell, stereotypes are considered as the result of group competition for resources, then G. Tajfel believes that the motive for stereotyping is the desire for a positive social identity, which is achieved by comparing one’s group with outgroups. Individuals strive to achieve a positive social identity by differentiating themselves from other groups. At the same time, negative qualities are attributed to outgroups, while positive qualities are attributed to ingroups, which ensures a state of conflict. This mechanism works, according to G. Tajfel, primarily in those groups that perceive their position relative to others as illegitimate. If relations between groups are perceived as legitimate, then conflict can be avoided (if the gender hierarchy, for example, is not perceived as injustice, but is perceived as the norm, then it is possible to achieve a positive social identity without conflict). (9)

Recently, a tendency has emerged that makes it possible, if not to remove, then to soften the contradictions between different approaches; Thus, the cognitive processes themselves are considered in close connection with the problem of power in its Foucauldian interpretation: the production, organization and consumption of knowledge are inseparable from domination and the establishment of hierarchical relations. This new stage was largely prepared in the bosom of postcolonial studies: the processes of globalization and the intensification of communication between representatives of different cultures in this regard prompted us to once again pay close attention to the problem of racial and ethnic prejudices. In terms of the history of the study of stereotypes, the works of E. Said should be noted, (10) in which the problem of the role of racial stereotypes (more precisely, stereotypical images of the “East” and “West”) in the organization of the modern world order was posed, and X .Baba (H.Bhabha), which reveals the function of the stereotype as the primary instrument of Subjectivation in colonial discourse. (eleven)

Let's try to reconstruct the logic of the approach under consideration. Yes, its representatives say, obviously, one of the reasons for stereotyping is cognitive factors: lack of information about a specific object of stereotyping, as well as the inevitability of simplifying the picture of the world in conditions of limited opportunities (both for individuals and for humanity as a whole) to experience reality in all its diversity and complexity. However, a number of reasons prevent such an explanation from being exhaustive. Firstly, one cannot help but notice that even in conditions of increasing communication between the stereotyping and stereotyping groups, stereotypes do not disappear; the information necessary to correct the image of the Other is simply not perceived. For example, the coexistence of men and women does not eliminate gender stereotypes. According to the “contact hypothesis,” stereotypes are destroyed when receiving information from another group, from positive interpersonal contact. (12) Further, any group (ethnic, racial, gender) constructs the Other in a similar way; Consequently, the point is not in the real qualities of the object of stereotyping (which are different), but in the general patterns of constructing Friend and Alien. Finally, the properties attributed to Our Own and Others are asymmetrical and unequal.

This allows researchers to complement the cognitive approach with a position that we share and which we consider heuristic, namely: stereotyping is a process of establishing power relations. The discourse of power is inseparable from the stereotyping of the Other, (13) and this othering functions as “a way of evaluating and positioning another people or another culture from a particular and privileged perspective.” (14) We propose to consider such discursive strategies as a type of “symbolic violence”, which involves the struggle for representations of Friends and Others and their manipulation in social space and the goal of which is symbolic power and symbolic capital. (15)

Formulating the main provisions of this approach, first of all, we note that we share the understanding of identity as a relationship between Our Own and Others, which is formed only in social interaction. One of the means of constructing symbolic boundaries between Friend and Alien is stereotyping. Otherness is a sign of “non-belonging,” writes M. Pickering; (16) according to his figurative expression, the most important function of a stereotype is to clearly determine where the fence is (the pale) and who is on the other side of that fence. (17)
Let us further emphasize that the stereotype draws a hard line both between representatives of Friend and Alien, and between their properties. The differences between the properties of representatives of the two groups turn into opposites; any similarity between them is denied. (19) Let us note that, in fact, already in the very opposition Friend-Alien, Self-Other (not-Self) lies the possibility of a “black-and-white” perception of reality, a binary picture of the world. Thus, the Enemy, as an extreme case of the Alien - due to the laws of binary logic - is attributed characteristics opposite to those that are most significant for collective identity. (19) S. Hall's famous work “The West and the Rest” shows how such discursive strategies take part in the construction of the identity of the West. “Everything Else” is meant to denote everything that the West is not; it is represented as an absolute, eternal, unchanging Other. (20)
The next fundamental point of such an interpretation of the nature of stereotyping is the recognition that these opposites are unequal: some receive a positive assessment, others - a negative one. At the same time, it is necessary to take into account one more evaluative aspect of such asymmetry - what S. Hall called “stereotypical dualism”: the “splitting” of a stereotype into two opposite elements; (21) the image of the Other is always ambivalent, and “good” and “bad” stereotypes are interconnected. The fundamental thing is that both the first and second modes of the stereotype (positive and negative) construct the Other in their own interests. (22) For example, this pattern can be traced in the Russophobic and Russophile modes of the stereotype of Russianness in Western discourse about Russia. (23)

Finally, an important characteristic of stereotypes is related to the concept of representation, which allows us to answer a reasonable question: why do the objects of stereotyping agree with stereotypes if they reinforce their subordinate position? M. Pickering, noting that one of the central issues of stereotyping is who speaks on behalf of whom, uses an expressive image: The other is mute; he is deprived of the right to have his own voice and be himself, he can only speak as allowed by the dominant discourse. (24)

Summing up the review of the study of stereotypes and stereotyping, we note the main features of these phenomena. Regardless of disagreements in the interpretation of individual aspects of the problem under consideration, researchers agree on the definition of stereotyping as the process of attributing characteristics to individuals based on their group membership, and stereotypes as a set of ideas about the characteristics (attributes) of a group of people. (25) Note that in Russian sociology such an interpretation is leading. (26) The main properties of stereotypes can be designated as follows. Firstly, they are used to evaluate Friend and Alien, and therefore are not axiologically neutral. Secondly, stereotyping occurs when, when comparing two cultures or social groups, differences are treated as polar opposites. Thirdly, this is a simplified way of representing the Other: several characteristics are “flattened” into one, very simplified, image, which is intended to represent the essence of the entire group. In this case, there is a homogenization of the Other, which is presented as something homogeneous; "Stereotyping is a way of thinking that does not recognize possible differences between members of the stereotyped group and does not allow exceptions to general rules." (27) Finally, we can talk about a social stereotype in the exact meaning of this term only if it is shared within a social community - the subject of stereotyping (“consensus among group members regarding the attributes of another group,” according to D. Taylor’s formulation). (28)

2. Gender stereotypes in the light of the theory of stereotyping

Now we have to dwell on the main methodological problems of gender stereotypes and answer the questions posed at the beginning of the article, namely, what are the content, functions, properties of gender stereotypes, their role in creating relationships between men and women, as well as social relations in general?

Note that increased interest in the problem of gender stereotypes emerged in Western sociology in the 70s and continues to this day. This interest is fueled, in addition to the rapid development of gender studies, by the fact that the analysis of gender stereotypes has become a fertile field of research due to their obvious differences from ethnic stereotypes. Work on gender stereotypes in the works of Western, and primarily American, feminist researchers has largely stimulated the further development of stereotype theory.

The conceptual framework for the study of gender stereotypes (basic definitions, analysis of the content of stereotypes and mechanisms of stereotyping) is offered in several dozen studies. (29) Let us note that one of the most developed aspects of the topic under study is the issue of the formation of stereotypical ideas about masculinity and femininity in the process of gender socialization.

In domestic science, the study of gender stereotypes began relatively recently. Despite a considerable number of very valuable works that touch on this topic, serious works that would consider both the universal mechanisms of gender stereotyping and the specifics of the functioning of gender stereotypes in Russian society have not yet appeared. (thirty)

Schematized generalized images of femininity/femininity and masculinity/masculinity - this is a typical definition of gender stereotypes. (31) Without arguing against it, we present another definition that takes into account different aspects of gender relations: “Gender stereotypes are socially constructed categories of “masculinity” and “femininity”, which are confirmed by different behavior depending on gender, different distribution of men and women within social roles and statuses, and which are supported by a person’s psychological needs to behave in a socially approved manner and to feel their integrity and consistency” (R. Unger (32)). This definition seems to us the most correct. (33) Firstly, it captures the nature of gender stereotypes, their socially constructed nature. Secondly, it covers social ideas about masculine and feminine qualities, as well as about appropriate behavior, occupations and social roles for men and women, in society and in the family. Thirdly, this definition reflects the role of gender stereotypes in personal identity. Fourthly, it takes into account the presence in the concept of “gender” of not only a social, but also a cultural and symbolic component, which implies a correlation with the masculine and feminine principles of things, properties and relationships that are not directly related to gender. For example, a nation or country, (34) social class, (35) political opponent, (36) elements of the landscape, etc. can be feminized or masculinized. In the future we intend to adhere to this definition.

What is the content of gender stereotypes? Relevant studies conducted repeatedly and using different methods (37) made it possible to compile a list of “masculine” and “feminine” qualities. For example, I. Broverman and his colleagues concluded that a woman is attributed primarily to qualities associated with warmth and expressiveness, and a man - with competence and rationality. (38)

Based on the empirical data of these studies, we can offer the results of our own analysis.

The stereotypical image of a man contains qualities, firstly, that correlate with activity and activity: enterprise, the desire to achieve a goal and to compete, a penchant for adventurism, determination, perseverance, courage, self-control, self-confidence, non-formism, the desire to be original, ability to do business. A woman is denied the possession of these qualities - on the contrary, she is attributed passivity, indecision, caution, concern for compliance with norms, and conformism.

Secondly, “masculine” are characteristics that are usually correlated with positions of power and management - the desire for leadership, ambition, authority, responsibility, objectivity, strength, decision-making ability, intelligence, realism. Characteristics such as submission, helplessness, dependence, irresponsibility, weakness, belief in the superiority of the male sex, partiality, and lack of objectivity are described as “feminine.”

The qualities that characterize the cognitive sphere of a person are also polar both in content and in assessment. Logicality, rationality, a tendency to think, a faster mind, objectivity, resourcefulness, criticism are attributed to a man; less ability to reason, irrationality, illogicality, uncritical perception and even stupidity - for a woman. Perhaps the only socially approved attribute of a woman in the cognitive sphere is intuition - a quality that has often been contrasted with the limitations of the male mind.

In the emotional sphere, both masculinity and femininity contain characteristics with different signs of evaluation - both positive and negative. “Male” is considered the ability to separate rational arguments from emotional ones, composure; “feminine” characteristics are emotionality, receptivity, suggestibility, sensitivity, easy changes in emotional states, a tendency to anxiety, complaints, tears, vulnerability, hysteria, capriciousness.

Characteristics associated with the interpersonal interaction process are also correlated with gender stereotypes; The image of a woman here is very diverse and contains assessments with different signs. Typically, such “feminine” qualities as sacrifice, kindness, caring, friendliness, tact, politeness, sensitivity to the emotions of another, a tendency to show feelings, gentleness, tenderness, shyness and modesty, and love for children are assessed as positive. Negative characteristics include fickleness, unreliability, cunning, talkativeness, grumpiness, obsession with the idea of ​​starting a family, and cowardice. The male stereotype contains both directness and tactlessness, rudeness, and harshness that correlate with it; both self-control, reliability, balance - and callousness, selfishness, insensitivity, cruelty; both justice and lack of mercy and pity. It is also worth mentioning that the stereotypical idea is that the male sex is more sophisticated in matters of sex.

Finally, men and women are assigned different social roles. Masculinity is traditionally associated with the public sphere, with participation in the life of society, femininity - with the private sphere (family, home, raising children). A man is perceived primarily as a worker and citizen, and a woman as a wife and mother.

Often, when talking about the content of gender stereotypes, they mean a certain “average woman”, without taking into account any other status characteristics of the individual. Obviously, such a “woman in general” (as well as a “man in general”) does not exist. A person has a set of status positions, many of which can correct the content of gender stereotypes, and this variability occurs among both subjects and objects of stereotyping.

Among the factors influencing gender stereotyping are a person’s ethnicity and race, his age, professional status and a number of others.

The most studied is the role of racial and ethnic factors (primarily, for obvious reasons, on American material). Thus, black men are perceived as less competent, less independent, less agentive compared to white women, and women, on the contrary, are perceived as more active, more independent and less emotional than white women. (40) Hispanic men are considered hypermasculine, (41) and for women - special femininity, love, motherhood, endurance. (42) There is a specific perception of French women and Frenchmen, Germans and German women, women and men from other national groups. The features of the stereotype of a Russian woman and a Russian man still need research. The study of the peculiar “myth of the Russian woman” created in philosophical, artistic, historical texts of domestic and foreign authors made it possible to identify those features, the verification of which could become the starting point of such research. In these texts, the Russian woman is attributed not only with numerous virtues of both Western and Eastern women, but also with qualities that in Western cultures are included rather in the stereotype of masculinity: intelligence, strength, hard work. At the same time, the image of a strong woman is often complemented by the image of a weak man, and if the national stereotype (“English in general,” “German in general,” etc.) is based, as a rule, on the male stereotype of the corresponding nation, then a woman is chosen as a symbol of Russianness. (43) Let us make a reservation once again - such a product of “high culture” cannot be considered as a stereotype. More representative material is used in linguistic and sociological studies, (44) in which the Russian woman is endowed with such qualities as intelligence, beauty, strength, kindness, and sincerity.

Another significant factor is the individual’s gender; gender stereotypes are not shared equally by men and women, firstly (45), and are assessed differently, secondly.
Age also influences stereotyping. It is believed that gender stereotypes are more common among young people because with age women become more and more agentive, and corrections are made to the stereotype of femininity related to the assessment of her activities and social status. (46) Other possible factors may include sexual orientation (sociological data indicate a coincidence of many characteristics of the stereotype of femininity and homosexuality (47)), social status (a woman from the lower class is often described as more passive, irresponsible than a woman from the middle class. (48) ) In addition, it is believed that gender stereotypes are much less common among the upper and middle classes, (49) which is associated with an increase in the role of other significant status positions. Any additional information about the different status positions of women and men reduces the role of gender stereotypes in the perception of this person. For example, the perception of a woman lawyer is influenced by the images of a woman existing in a given culture, images of a lawyer, the corresponding national and age groups, etc. Depending on the context, one or another image may come to the fore. Moreover, the same people are perceived differently depending on the situation: a female officer can be compared with a male officer, and with a female nurse; (50) The role of gender stereotypes will be different in these two cases. The assessment of stereotypical qualities also depends on the context: for example, “female weakness” can be assessed positively or negatively, depending on whether this marker is used in relation to a female politician or a female housewife. Moreover, the content of such a stereotype can be perceived by women themselves both negatively and positively.

The properties of gender stereotypes coincide with the noted properties of stereotypes in general. (51)
First, gender stereotypes are normative. Since ideas about what a “real man” should be, how a woman should behave in a given situation, and even how she should dress are socially shared, real men and women cannot but take this into account. Moreover, it is gender ideas - due to their special role in a person’s identity - that are one of the most powerful factors, mechanisms for controlling an individual’s behavior, for example, political. (52) Secondly, gender stereotypes are of an emotional and evaluative nature - which must be taken into account when analyzing the hidden mechanisms of their influence on a woman’s status. The assessments inherent in the gender stereotype (female weakness, passivity - and male courage; female sensitivity, emotionality - and male self-control) are a factor in delegitimizing women and discrediting femininity.

As you know, one of the provisions of gender studies is the thesis that culture is androcentric. "The symbolic woman is constructed as a deviation from the norm." (53) “In Eurocentric discourse, the qualities associated with masculinity are considered truly human; a woman is characterized by those properties from which man supposedly starts in his evolution.” (54) Emotional and rational, spiritual and physical, nature and culture - these phenomena, not directly related to gender, are identified with male or female in such a way that a kind of hierarchy is created within these pairs - “gender asymmetry”. What is defined as masculine is placed at the center and seen as positive and dominant; defined as feminine - as peripheral and inferior. At the same time, however, it should be taken into account that in different discursive strategies and in different contexts these assessments can be assessed with both a plus and a minus sign (for example, men are goal-oriented - men are ambitious; women are emotional and sensitive - women are capricious, etc.). Femininity can serve as a symbol not only of backwardness, but also of the possibility of achieving a bright future, (55) which, for example, is associated with the idea of ​​Russian femininity. (56)

It is also necessary to take into account the idea of ​​multiple masculinities expressed by R. Connell. Thus, as J. Mosse notes, the stereotype of masculinity is strengthened by the existence of a negative stereotype - a man whose soul and body are represented as opposite to “true masculinity.” At the same time, the stereotype of “genuine masculinity”, the dominant one, was called upon to embody Insiders, while groups marginalized by society, “internal” Aliens - as well as “external” - represented inauthentic, subordinate masculinity. (57) It seems to us heuristic that a positive gender stereotype always has a complement in the form of a negative one.

The emotional-evaluative nature of the stereotype is also reflected in ideas about the ambivalence of the Other - this is illustrated almost primarily in the material of gender stereotypes. Thus, the duality of ideas about a woman as an Other was analyzed in the work of S. de Beauvoir “The Second Sex”. (58)

Another attribute of stereotyping that is evident in the field of gender relations is the binary logic of perception of masculine and feminine qualities, reflected in the very term “gender dichotomy,” which “gives us the opportunity to choose from only two options; we lose the ability to see the rest.” (59) Therefore, as P. Bourdieu notes, masculinity and femininity are not just opposite - they condition each other. (60) Masculinity is actually non-femininity. R. Connell emphasizes that “masculinity” does not exist except in contrast with “femininity”. (61)

The tendency to oversimplify the picture of the world involved in such logic is also expressed in the homogenization of the Other, which in androcentric culture is a woman. In the process of gender stereotyping, men and women are viewed not as individuals, but as members of the corresponding social group; At the same time, it is forgotten that each representative of the human race is not only a woman or a man, but also a bearer of many other social roles. A classic example: the shortcomings in the activities of a male ruler will be explained by his personal qualities (or - and other stereotypes work here - for example, his ethnicity or age), but of a female ruler - by her gender. (62)

Finally, gender stereotypes are relatively stable and stable. Note that this provision must be accepted with certain reservations. Thus, J. Mosse believes that gender stereotypes in their modern version appeared only in the era of Modernity, that is, in the second half of the 18th century. (63) According to R. Connell, it is pointless to try to look for any “transhistorical truths” about courage and masculinity. (64) At the same time, many ideas about the masculine and feminine principles have changed over the centuries - both meaningfully and, especially, functionally - not so significantly. For example, modern ideas about the special female emotionality and medieval views on “a woman’s inability to control her feelings” (65) look almost identical, just as the ideas about the correlation of power with the masculine principle - reasonable, fair, not subject to emotions - have not changed. However, like all social stereotypes, gender stereotypes undergo change as other social ideas and norms change, as well as the actual status of the stereotyped and stereotyped groups. There are no longer, say, clearly shared ideas about a man as the sole breadwinner and protector of the family and about a woman as a weak and helpless creature. However, we have to admit that changes in gender stereotypes are much slower than changes in social realities.

So, gender stereotypes are normative in nature and, therefore, take part in the creation of a system of social relations, or rather in the construction of gender order. We have already written about the reasons for gender stereotyping. Here we will consider only a number of aspects of the mechanism of gender stereotyping.

In the structure of gender as a system of relations, such interconnected and interdependent subsystems can be distinguished as the “gender contract”; gender perceptions; gender identity. Gender ideas reveal themselves in doctrines of various kinds: religious, legal, political, philosophical. In ordinary consciousness, gender ideas manifest themselves as gender stereotypes. Thus, through gender identity and social institutions, gender stereotypes influence the production of hierarchical relations in society. Actually, it was the study of gender stereotypes that made an important contribution to the development of a new approach to the problem of stereotyping as a process of social control, establishment, maintenance and adjustment of power relations.
Stereotypes not only establish inequality: they justify it. In this regard, it is necessary to note another fundamental function of gender stereotyping - the legitimation of power. Stereotypes need constant confirmation because power relationships must be constantly confirmed. According to M. Pickering, stereotypes make the visible invisible: inequality, therefore, looks completely natural; "The other must be transformed into an object of happy assimilation." (68) In other words, women accept these rules of the game; In this regard, it is appropriate to recall the mechanism of representation. P. Bourdieu in his work “Masculinist Dominance” characterized women’s existence as “the existence of the perceived.” Masculinist domination creates women as symbolic objects whose being is the “being of the perceived,” which keeps them in a constant state of symbolic dependence. They exist primarily through the gaze of others and for the gaze of others. (69) He writes: “Women can only appear as objects, or, more precisely, symbols, the meaning of which is constituted apart from them and whose function is to expand the symbolic capital in the hands of men.” (70) Femininity is often nothing more than a form of indulgence, issued in accordance with real or perceived male expectations. (71)
Finally, it is necessary to emphasize one more important function of gender stereotypes. Gender takes part in ordering the picture of the world as a whole and organizing the entire system of social relations - not only between men and women, but also between groups, as well as between humanity and nature. Gender discourse as a system of representations, intertwined with other types of discourse (national, military, political, etc.), is influenced by them and, in turn, determines them. (72) This is due to the ability of gender to play the role of a marker, a mechanism of inclusion/exclusion, (73) constructing symbolic boundaries between communities, (74) separating Friends from Strangers and defining the first as the norm and the second as deviation (75). Such “all-permeability” of gender is also possible thanks to gender metaphorization. It is the gender dichotomy that gives grounds to consider the oppositions inherent in gender stereotypes as “natural”, “natural” (76) - and therefore, firstly, legitimate, and secondly, eternal. Genderization of other differences (racial, ethnic, social) is a fact that has received wide coverage in the academic literature. (77) One can agree with the thought of M. Pickering, expressed in the work “Stereotyping: Politics of Representation”: “The Other is always constructed as an object for the benefit of the subject...”. (78)

NOTES

1. Work on the article was carried out with the support of the research program “Gender stereotypes in Russian society: sociological and political analysis” of the Ministry of Education of the Russian Federation and the JFDP program (American Council). I express my gratitude to the University of Wyoming (USA) for assistance in research, as well as to my Russian and American colleagues O.A. Khasbulatova, O.V. Ryabov, K. Connolly, K. Jensen for invaluable consultations and advice.
2. See: Stroebe W., Insko C.A. Stereotype, Prejudice, and Discrimination: Changing Conceptions in Theory and Research // D.Bar-Tal, C.F.Graumann, A.W.Kruglanski, W.Stroebe (eds). Stereotyping and Prejudice: Changing.
3. Lippman W. Public opinion. N.Y., 1922. P.88-90, 95-96. W. Lippman called stereotypes “pictures in the heads” that save a person from the complexity of the world around him - this vivid image was subsequently often used as a short definition of stereotypes. See: Schneider D.J. Modern Stereotype research: Unfinished Business // Stereotypes and stereotyping. Macrae C. N., Stangor C., Hewstone M. (eds.). N.Y-L., 1996. P.419.
4. Allport G.W. The nature of prejudice. N.Y., 1954; Stroebe W., Insko C. A. Op.cit. P.3.
5. Although in recent years the differences between these two approaches have become blurred: proponents of the cultural approach recognize the importance of individual perception, and vice versa.
6. Adorno and his colleagues believed that stereotyping, being a cognitive process, is inherent only in a special type of personality, which is characterized by authoritarianism, intolerance, and lack of tolerance. Stereotypes are the forms in which such an authoritarian personality, driven by unconscious motives, strives to see the world. According to psychodynamic theories, the outgroup stereotype is the result of a shift in aggression from a powerful frustrator to a powerless minority. In the theory of symbolic racism (70s), stereotyping is explained by the conflict between racist (sexist, nationalist) feelings and shared egalitarian norms; in the dissociation model (90s), the basis of stereotyping is declared to be a conflict between cultural patterns acquired as a result of socialization, and individual beliefs, which are the subject of self-control. (Eberhardt J.L., Fisce S.T. Motivating individuals to change: What is a target to do? // Stereotypes and stereotyping. P.371-381).
7. Oakes P.J., Haslm S.A., Turner J.C. Stereotyping and social reality. Blackwell: Oxford-Mass., 1994. P. 34-71, 212; Ottavi V., Lee Y.-T. Accuracy: A neglected Component of stereotype Research // Stereotype accuracy: towards appreciating group differences. Lee Y-T., Jussim L.J., McCauley C.R. (eds.). Wash., 1995. P. 40. Stangor C., Schaller M. Stereotypes as Individual and Collective Representations // Stereotypes and stereotyping. P. 3-37. Mackie D.M., Hamilton D.L., Susskind J., Rosselli F. Social Psychological Foundations of stereotype Formation // Stereotypes and stereotyping, 41-78; See also: Shikhirev P.N. Study of stereotype in American social science // Issue. philosophy. 1971. No. 5.
8. Eberhardt J.L., Fisce S.T. Op.cit. P. 383.
9. Eberhardt J.L., Fisce S.T. Op.cit. P.384-385.
10. Said E. W. Orientalism. N.Y., 1978.
11. Bhabha H. The location of culture. L.; N.Y., 1994. P. 75.
12. Allport G.W. Op.cit. P. 73; Hewstone M. Changing stereotypes with disconfirming information // Stereotyping and Prejudice. P. 207-223.
13. Hall S. The West and the rest: Discourse and power // Hall S., Greben B. (eds.) Formations of modernity. Cambridge, 1992. P. 258.
14. Pickering M. Stereotyping: the politics of representation. N.Y., 2001. P. 47.
15. Bourdieu P. Beginnings. M., 1994. P. 204; Bourdieu P. Masculine dominance. Stanford, 2001. P. 103.
16. Pickering M. Op.cit. P.79.
17. Pickering M. Op.cit. P.16.
18. Scollon R., Scollon S.W. Intercultural communication: A discourse approach. Malden, Mass., 2001. P.168.
19. For example, in the collective identity of Americans, the image of Enemy Number One is endowed with such a feature as “lack of freedom” (“despotism”, “propensity for slavery”, “totalitarianism”) - be it the USSR during the Cold War, Japan during the The Second, and Germany - the First World War, or even England during the War of Independence (see: Ryabov O.V. The image of the enemy in the gender discourse of domestic historiosophical journalism during the First World War // Social history-2002. Special issue dedicated to historical feminology and gender history / Ed. N. Pushkarev. M.: ROSSPEN, 2002. In print.
20. Hall S. Op.cit.
21. Hall S. Op.cit. P.308. A special contribution to the study of this property of the stereotype was made in the works of H. Bhabha on colonial discourse (Bhabha H. Op.cit. P.66).
22. Pickering M. Op.cit. P. 40.
23. See: Ryabov O.V. "Mother Rus'": Experience of gender analysis of the search for Russian national identity in domestic and Western historiosophy. M., 2001, Ryabov O.V. Russian philosophy of femininity (XI-XX centuries). Ivanovo, 1999.
24. Pickering M. Op.cit. P. XIV.
25. Stroebe W., Insko C. A. Op.cit. P.5; Gardner R.C. Stereotypes as Consensual Beleifs // M.P. Zanna, J.M. Olson (eds.). The psychology of prejudice: The Ontario Symposium. V.7. Hillsdale, N.J., 1994.
26. Let us give an example of a typical definition: social stereotypes are schematized, stable, emotionally charged images of social objects, characterized by a high degree of consistency of individual ideas (Shikhirev P.N. Social stereotypes // Russian Sociological Encyclopedia / Edited by G.V. Osipov. M ., 1998. P. 538; See also: Stefanenko T. G. Ethnopsychology. M., 1999. P. 248-249. Merenkov A. V. Sociology of stereotypes. Yekaterinburg, 2001; Shikhirev V. N. Social psychology. M., 2000. P.115-119.
27. Scollon R., Scollon S.W. Op.cit. P. 169. On the polarization of the stereotype, also see P.N. Shikhirev. Social Psychology. P.116.
28. See: Gardner R.C. Op.cit. P. 3.
29. See e.g. Deaux K., Lewis L.L. Structure of gender stereotypes: Interrelations among components and gender label // Journal of Personality and Social Psychology. 1984. No. 45(5); . Basow S.A. Gender stereotypes and roles. Pacific Grove, 1992; The Stereotyping of Women. N.Y., 1983; Connell R.W. Masculinities. Berkeley, Los Angeles, 1995; Broverman I., Vogel S.R., Broverman D.M., Clarkson F.E., Rozenkrantz P.S. Sex role stereotype: A current appraisal. Journal of social issues, 1972, 28(2). P. 59-78; Raguz M. Masculinity and Femininity: An Empirical Definition. Nijmegen, 1991; Ashmore R.D. Del Boca F.K. (eds.) The social psychology of female-male relations: A critical analysis of central concepts. N.-Y., 1986; Stoll C. Male-Female: Socialization, Social Roles, and Social Structure. Iowa, 1974; Williams, J. E., Best, D. L.. Measuring sex stereotypes. A thirty-nation study. Beverly Hills, 1982. Women and Sex Roles. N.Y.-L., 1978. In the USA there is even a specialized magazine on the problems of gender stereotypes and sex-role behavior. (Sex-Roles: A Journal of Research).
30. See: Kotlova T.B., Ryabova T.B. Bibliographic review of research on gender stereotypes // Woman in Russian society. 2001. 3/4. pp. 25-38.
31. See for example: Renzetti K., Curran D. Women, men and society. Boston, 1999. P.292.
32. Quoted from: Basow S. A. Gender stereotypes and roles. P. 17.
33. A similar structure of gender stereotypes is highlighted by I.S. Kletsina. She believes that gender stereotypes can be divided into three groups: 1) stereotypes associated with the attribution of very specific psychological qualities and personality traits to men and women (stereotypes of masculinity/femininity); 2) stereotypes associated with family and professional roles; 3) finally, those that are associated with differences in the content of labor (expressive and instrumental spheres of activity). Kletsina I.S. Gender socialization. St. Petersburg, 1998. pp. 19-20.
34. See, for example: Ryabov O.V. Russian philosophy of femininity; Ryabov O.V. Mother Rus'.
35. Ryabov O.V. Mother Rus'. P. 49.
36. for example, see. Ryabova T.B. 2001. Ryabova T.B. Masculinity in the political discourse of Russian society // Woman in Russian society. 2000. No. 4; Riabova Tatiana. "Ours" and "Theirs" in Russian Political Discourse: Gender Aspect // J.G. Harris (ed.) Volume of papers on VI ICCESS Congress (Tampere, 2000). Forthcoming.
37. See e.g. Williams, J.E., Best, D.L. Op.cit.; Ashmore R.D. Del Boca F.K (eds.) Op.cit. P.71-74; Broverman I. et al. Op.cit. P. 59-78.
38. Broverman et al. Op.cit.
39. See e.g. Forisha B.L. Sex roles and personal awareness. Morristown-N.Y. P.24-28.
40. Basow S. Op.cit. P. 4; Lips H.M. Sex and Gender. An introduction. Radford Univ. press. 1997. P.16.
41. Zinn M.B. Chicano Men and Masculinity // Kimmel M.S., Messner M.A. (eds.) Men's Lives. Boston, 2001. P. 25-27.
42. Lips H.M. P.17.
43. See: Ryabov O.V. "Mother Rus'".
44. See Kirilina A.V. Gender: linguistic aspects. M., 1999; Shilova T.A. The myth of the Russian woman on the Internet: on the issue of the gender aspect of ethnic stereotyping // Gender research in the humanities: modern approaches. Materials int. scientific Conf. Ivanovo, September 15-16. 2000 Part III. History, language, culture. Ivanovo, 2000.
45. Kirilina A.V. Op. op. P. 97.
46. ​​See; Lips H.M. Op.cit. P. 20.
47. Lips H.M. Op.cit. P. 9.
48. Landrine H. Race and Class Stereotypes of Women // Sex Roles. 1985. V.13. 1-2, P. 69.
49. Lips H.M. Op.cit. P. 20.
50. Deaux K., Lewis L.L. Op.cit. P. 191.
51. Ryabova T.B. Gender stereotypes and gender stereotyping: towards the formulation of the problem // Woman in Russian society. 2001. No.?. P.14-22.
52. Ryabova T.B. Masculinity in the political discourse of Russian society
53. Spike Peterson V., True J. New Times and New Conversations // The Man Question in International Relations. Zalewski M., Parpart J. (eds.). Boulder, 1998. P.16.
54. Ryabov O.V. Is a woman human?”: Russian anthropology in the context of the historiosophical search for national identity // Gender: Language. Culture. Communication. M., 2001. P. 94.
55. See Ryabov O.V. Russian philosophy of femininity.
56. See Ryabov O.V. Mother Rus'.
57. Mosse G. The Image of Man: The Creation of Modern Masculinity. Oxford, 1996 P.6
58. On the idea of ​​the duality of the feminine principle, the “ideal of Madonna” and the “ideal of Sodom,” in Russian philosophical culture, see: Ryabov O.V. Russian philosophy of femininity.
59. Spike Peterson V., True J. Op.cit. P.20.
60. Bourdieu P. Op.cit., P.53.
61. Connell R.W. Op.cit. P. 68.
62. Ryabova T.B. Woman in the history of the Western European Middle Ages. Ivanovo, 1999. Chapter 1
63. Mosse J. Op.cit. P.5.
64. Connel R.W. Op.cit. P. 68.
65. Ryabova T.B. Woman in the history of the Western European Middle Ages. Chapter 1.
66. Ryabova T.B. Gender stereotypes and gender stereotyping.
67. Ryabov O.V. Mother Rus'. Chapter 1.
68. Pickering M. Op.cit. P. 48.
69. Bourdieu P. Op.cit., P.63, 66
70. Bourdieu P.Op.cit. P. 42-43.
71. Bourdieu P.Op.cit. P. 66.
72. Cohn C. Wars, Wimps, and Women: Talking Gender and Thinking War // Gendering War Talk. Cooke M., Woollacott A. (eds.). Princeton, 1993. P. 228. See also Ryabov O.V. Image of the Enemy. 2002.
73. Gilman S.L. Difference and Pathology: Stereotypes of Sexuality, Race, Madness. Ithaca-N.Y., 1975.
74. Cohen A. The symbolic construction of community. L.; N.Y., 1985.
75. Ryabov O.V. The image of the enemy in the gender discourse of domestic historiosophical journalism during the First World War.
76. Spike Peterson V., True J. Op.cit.
77. See, for example: Pickering M. Op.cit. P.XI.
78. Pickering M. Op.cit. P.71.

© Copyright. Tatyana Ryabova 2003

Ryabova T.B. Stereotypes and stereotyping as a problem in gender studies // Personality. Culture. Society. T.V. Issue 1-2 (15-16). pp. 120-139. Stereotypes and Stereotyping as a Problem of Gender Studies // Personality. Culture, Society. V.5. part 1-2 (15-16), p. 120-139. In Russian. (1)

Gender stereotypes are generally accepted ideas in a given community or group about the “normal” set of characteristics, traits and qualities that female and male members possess. Without taking into account their personal characteristics, but only on the basis of biological nature. So, until now, when describing the average woman, we will imagine a gentle, emotional and good-smelling person with makeup, a beautiful manicure and long hair.

Whereas the average man will appear strong, strong-willed, smart and successful. In this case, the well-groomed nature of his hands will, in most cases, fade into the background. In this way, we will demonstrate the very gender stereotypes implanted by the society in which we grew up. After all, such “patterns” can change depending on society.

1. Function of generalization and stereotyping.

In general, any stereotype in life is initially intended to facilitate the understanding of some highlighted features and provide a certain universal model of behavior. Gender stereotypes are no exception. So, having learned that the family you are going to visit has a daughter, in 87% a doll will be chosen as a gift and in 20% sweets. For a boy, 54% will choose a car, approximately 15% will be a weapon or a construction set, and the same 20% will be goodies.

Although many studies of younger groups of kindergartens have unanimously proven the fact that children are equally successful in playing with all the toys that they come across and that attract attention. So, many girls enjoy rolling cars, and boys carry baby dolls.

But the older children get, the more persistently they are told what to play with, and they begin to form preferences based on learning. And the scheme, which was originally intended to help, begins to interfere with life in a not at all good way.

1. The function of justifying inequality.
   

Thus, the feminist movement defines the leading function of gender stereotypes as creating conditions for justifying social gender inequality. Thus, in many cultures, men are credited with being rational, active and more interested in work. Whereas ladies are seen as more emotional, sensitive and prioritizing personal relationships, family, marriage and motherhood to the detriment of work.

In this way, a more important and valuable attitude towards men is fueled, their superiority is strengthened, as well as androcentrism - the idea of ​​men as the “norm” of society, while women are seen as some kind of deviation from it. In this regard, the definition of a “glass ceiling” was adopted to describe inequality in the form of wages and career paths for women. After all, formally, not a single enterprise establishes the inability of young ladies to occupy leadership positions or receive more money.

But, in fact, the lion's share of managers are men, and when the same managers start, men in most cases are given higher salaries. After all, the “breadwinner” cannot bring less money into the house than the wife.

The American Men for Fatherhood Association points out that gender stereotypes, however, are not always on the side of men. Thus, members of the association raise the painful issue that children, in the event of parental divorce (in Europe, Canada and America), in 92% of cases remain with their mother, while all laws declare equal rights for parents. And the reason for this is all the same gender stereotypes, which assert that men are more interested in their careers than in children.

In addition, the same association raises the alarm about other gender biases. Thus, men who have been subjected to sexual harassment or violence seek help in only 2% of cases, because “for a man it is shameful.” And being raised in the “boys don’t cry and don’t complain” style leads to an inability to show empathy and suppressing one’s worries and stress with alcohol and drugs.

Properties of gender stereotypes

The properties of gender stereotypes are also closely related to the function of understanding and affect aspects of communication between genders. They allow you to “anticipate” the options for this communication. And thus, we can name three main properties of a stereotype based on gender:

The problem of gender stereotypes in society

The problem of stereotyping and selectivity in the perception of information based on gender goes back hundreds of years. Gender stereotypes have acquired the form of stable systems that have taken root in the consciousness of members of a given society. Psychologists and sociologists call this feature a cognitive distortion and define it as a persistent deviation in perception based only on beliefs and convictions. And not based on objective reality. For example, many still adhere to the belief of the relationship between gender and certain human qualities.

Thus, there is a Russian proverb: “A woman’s hair is long, but her mind is short.” And jokes about blondes are a favorite topic in noisy companies. However, researchers at the Intelligence Center in America, based on data from not only their own, but also a number of European countries, say that there is no proven evidence of actual lower intelligence in women.

Moreover, two records according to the test belong to young ladies. Their lower social success in leadership and public positions is associated exclusively with the trend of accessibility of education and precisely the pressure of social stereotypes.

The aggravation of problems or the reduction of the pressure of stereotypes is associated with important and significant events in society. For example, since 1884, a Linotype typesetting machine began to be used for printing newspapers. The male workers who learned to service the apparatus demanded quite a large salary for themselves by those standards. And, in order to prevent young ladies, whose work was paid less, from getting into the business and thus get rid of competition, the female population was recognized as incapable of working with him in the sphere of “their low minds.”

But as soon as typewriters were invented and actively introduced, it turned out that typing was quite accessible to ladies. Moreover, they preferred to hire them as secretaries and assistants: they paid less and were more pleasing to the eye. Well, the opposite example is memorable to our country like no other.

During the Great Patriotic War, women repeatedly proved their ability to cope with the most “male” tasks: they drove trains, planes and cars, stood behind machines, mined coal and went into attack with weapons in their hands. And this did not cause protest from anyone, since it was caused by necessity, which reduced the pressure of stereotypes.

The content of gender stereotypes is relatively similar in different regions and cultures. For example, students from twenty-five countries who took part in the study attributed traits such as independence, dominance, authority, strength and courage to men. For women - modesty, tenderness, dependence, dreaminess and sensuality. But boastfulness, laziness and disorganization were correlated with different genders in different cultures.

In addition, the severity of gender differences in some countries was more pronounced. Moreover, this was observed in Europe (in particular Germany) and Malaysia. Whereas in India and Scotland the differentiation was less pronounced.

Influence

The impact of gender stereotypes is varied and affects most people's lives. For example, gender bias causes:

This list can be continued indefinitely, but there is only one conclusion - such influences somewhat narrow and limit the individual’s ability to self-realization. After all, a woman who chooses the profession of a loader and at the same time goes to a football match, as well as a man who dreams of devoting all his time to raising three children, are perceived as “deviations.” After all, the existing imposed stereotyping states the opposite.

Examples of gender stereotypes

We have already mentioned a number of examples of such stereotypes in the text. But, you can start from early childhood, when parents begin to buy all things pink or blue. Then typical toys are selected. Girls are expected to be more careful just because they are girls. And boys should be more active and courageous. At the same time, boys are taught to restrain themselves and not offend the little ones. And this despite the fact that girls may be larger and offend them first. At the same time, it is customary for girls, first of all, to praise and emphasize external beauty. Whereas guys have intelligence, confidence and courage.

Girls are often sent to dance or gymnastics. For boys, they choose martial arts and football. The stronger and more pronounced gender stereotypes are, the more difficult it is for the other sex to express themselves in a “fiefdom” that is not assigned to it. Thus, in the most strict Muslim countries, there are very few women – wrestlers, boxers, weightlifters. As well as men dancing in ballet.

Moreover, women in many countries and societies are expected to want to get married and raise children. And also do housework. Whereas men strive to make a career and earn money.

Male roles, female roles

Male and female roles are justified in terms of biological components. For example, a woman copes better with raising children, if only because she gives birth to these same children. Psychologists argue that the quality of raising offspring depends largely on the maturity and readiness of a person, regardless of gender. If all these possibilities were determined only by biological nature, then raising adopted children would be completely impossible.

The same is true with the desire, for example, to engage in science. When interviewing various people in a number of countries, the image of the scientist was an elderly gray-haired man in a shabby jacket. And he went poorly with a young, outwardly attractive girl.

However, it is worth remembering that sometimes gender stereotypes are strong protective factors. For example, a woman can easily admit that she is incompetent and even stupid if it benefits her, while relieving herself of some responsibility. In addition, only in Israel compulsory conscription applies to all young people. In many countries where military service remains, women are exempted from it as the “weaker sex”.

Men have their own concessions - they are more often forgiven for domestic violence and despotism. In addition, even such a thing as grooming does not correlate with men in most of Russia. As the popular expression says: “a man should smell like a man...” Although, of course, all the features of this bouquet also depend on stereotypes.

Conclusion

Modern society is increasingly striving to minimize the influence of gender stereotypes, thus trying to find new non-standard approaches to solving everyday problems. Moreover, the focus on fewer children in the family and greater quality of education has made it possible for women to compete in various fields of activity. On the other hand, men were recognized as having the right to express their emotions and show empathy.

A modern idol knows how to feel poetry and sing soulful songs, and most importantly, strive to understand his companion, and not just get food for her. However, when criticizing established stereotypes, do not forget about the other side of the coin. And, if a young lady is recognized as having the right to go down into the mine, then you shouldn’t expect that the elevator door will be gallantly opened for her.

Women are constantly manipulated

Women are strong in psychological violence

Women are monogamous, men are polygamous

A woman doesn't like swearing

A woman wants love and relationships, and a man wants sex

All women want children and marriage

A woman tries to drag a man secretly or by force into the registry office

Men are smarter

Girls love pink, boys love blue

Girls play with dolls, boys with cars

Gay couples can't have children / can't raise _normal_ children

Woman is the keeper of the hearth

A man is by nature a provider and leader.

Children are the lot of women; maternity leave for men is funny

"Dumb Blondes"

Equality will lead to women having to carry sleepers

Feminists want to undermine men's rights

Feminists don't have sex and they're all scary lesbians

Feminism is bad for the economy because... Because of quotas for women, jobs are not filled with the strongest personnel

Feminists want to stop people from speaking their minds and are suing for trying to hold the door for them

Feminists raise the problem of "chicks" and other bullshit, but do not deal with women's rights in Africa and the Islamic world

There are more false accusations of rape than actual rapes.

A woman should be beautiful, meek, gentle, wise - at the same time seem stupid, but not be stupid

The husband is the head, the wife is the neck

A man should earn more and be stronger

It's natural that men earn more

Women themselves agree to low-paid jobs

The bitch won't want it - the dog won't jump up

Women are worse drivers

A woman cooks food, and a man repairs equipment - this is natural

A wife takes her husband's last name because she is getting married.

Because of equal rights, women began to give birth less and humanity is dying out

Raped? Beaten up? ‎It’s my own fault, I shouldn’t have provoked it

It’s cheaper to hire a prostitute than to give flowers and candies because they “voluntarily” spread their legs in front of you.

Feminism has led to women becoming bitches - men always owe them something, but they themselves owe nothing, they only spread their legs for expensive gifts, and not every time

A woman should be feminine and a man should be masculine

Women should not be allowed to govern the country - what if she has PMS and declares war without any particular reason

There is no such thing as rape in marriage - the husband has a legal right to sex

If a woman does not give her man sex, she is showing disrespect for him.

If a drunk went to a guy’s house, it means she knew by default that she would have to fuck next, what else is rape?

In a relationship, the man should be older and more influential

Women love macho men and jocks, men love meek young girls

Nobody likes smart and strong women, just like soft men (but a soft man will still find a mate since absolutely all women want to get married and worry about the ticking clock)

For 9 guys 10 girls

All women love children, but men do not and by nature do not know how to treat children; therefore, you should never leave a small child with a man, as he will ruin the child

Women who have not given birth to children are generally unhappy in their old age. They just pretend to be happy. A woman cannot be happy without a child

A woman cannot be a programmer or driver

Women are mercantile and only want money, to be taken to expensive restaurants and bought diamonds and fur coats

Every woman dreams of a fur coat!

Women have monopolized the birth and raising of children and are raising boys to be slobberers, trying to establish matriarchy

There are only women everywhere! In the clinic there are women, in kindergarten and in schools there are women, in the housing department there are women - women rule the world and women raise spineless men

Women know everything about relationships almost from birth; therefore, it is they who must ensure harmony in the couple and anticipate problems. If there is discord, it’s because she has a complex character and she’s fooling him.

A woman should bear responsibility for the emotional component of a relationship

Men are becoming weak, frail and irresponsible because of feminists

First you fight for equality, and then you complain that there are no normal men left

Men must give way to women in transport (not only the sick and old, but everyone)

If men deal with children too much, they are wimps and wimps.

Women shouldn't force men to wash their children's butts.

If a woman does not do housework, then she is not a woman at all. Who needs a woman who doesn’t cook borscht, wash socks and iron shirts?

Male chefs are more talented than females

A man should cook the meat

All conductors are men! It’s the same with directors and other creative people-leaders.

What social support is there during pregnancy and parenting? I decided to give birth myself - earn money for the child yourself, no one is forcing you to give birth

I got knocked up - it was my own fault, I should have taken hormones, otherwise the man with a condom didn’t feel the same. Want to have an abortion? Murderer! It is better to give birth and send it to an orphanage. She gave birth and sent her to an orphanage? What a bitch, apparently there is something wrong with her head, a normal woman wouldn’t do that

Women have a competitive advantage over men everywhere, because when she needs or benefits, she just puts on a blouse with a low neckline or spreads her legs, and now she has already achieved everything she needed, BUT A MAN CAN’T DO THAT

Women are allowed into nightclubs for free and are also given a glass of champagne as a gift. Yes, they are simply swimming in gender privileges!

If she doesn’t leave a relationship in which she is beaten, it means she’s happy with everything

They want equal rights, but you still can’t beat them

Women are obsessed with their appearance

A woman should have her family first

Even if you give a woman the freedom to do what she wants, she will still return to the children and the kitchen, because that is her nature

Women love light, stupid comedies and films about love, and men love science fiction and action.

Men are better versed in technology, science and business; and they are better at it by nature. Therefore, in a relationship, it is the woman who should put her career second.

Women's magazines write about cosmetics and diets, because women only want to read about that; a woman won't read about synchrophasotrons!

Men are more logical, women are more emotional

Well, in general this is true, not 100%, but women are much more emotional than men, in one way or another. I’m not saying that all women are, but the majority are.

A woman’s brain is better suited than a man’s for scrupulous, monotonous work, and she can also do several things at once.

There is this thing in the head called the corpus callosum. In women it is predominantly larger than in men, and it also helps women with multitasking.

All the greatest achievements and discoveries have been made by men

Not everything is natural, but most...

Men and women love differently

What is this anyway?

Answer

Well, stereotypes don’t come out of nowhere. Most of them have some basis. And their use is evolutionarily justified - stereotypes initially saved people time and energy, suggesting with a predominant degree of probability some conclusion. But, if a person wants to understand some issue, and not just repeat some belief that was formed who knows how many generations ago, it is necessary to abandon stereotypes. Yes, average women are more emotional. Yes, there are more inventors among men. But anyone who is at least a little familiar with logic must understand that all this does not mean that there are no (or somehow very few) men in the world who are much more emotional than some women, or that some women cannot be much cooler inventors than some men. Stereotypes are needed by people who do not have developed critical thinking - they somehow help them navigate.

Answer

Comment

A man loves with his eyes, and a woman with her ears.

A woman should be beautiful, and a man's beauty is his wallet.

Women give birth to children, and men kill them.

Women are pacifists, and men are warriors.

Women spoil children, and men raise them.

Women love to gossip.

A woman's favorite pastime is to fuck up her neighbor's brains.

Girls are more diligent, and boys are more active.

Girls are more disciplined and responsible.

The woman does not want to work and only dreams of maternity leave.

Sex is not so much an event for mutual pleasure as it is a favor from one partner to the other (alternatively, the victory of one partner over the other or use).

A woman should not be the first to admit her likes. The initiative should come only from the man.

All men are children.

All women are capricious, like children.

All women cry a little less often than they go to the toilet. If you have not seen a woman crying, this does not mean that she is not crying, she spreads dampness regularly when no one is looking.

A man shouldn't cry.

If a woman does not cry at a funeral, she is not grieving and is very callous (see above).

Women have weak nerves.

There is only male friendship, but female friendship does not exist. Women only pretend to be friends, but in reality they compete with each other and are fiercely jealous.

If a man chooses safer routes in the dark, then he is a coward and a weakling.

The more sexual partners a man has, the better, because it is inherent in nature to inseminate as many females as possible (here are fairy tales about keys and locks, teapots and cups, and other works of the mentally ill)

If you didn't serve, you're not a man!

Romance is not masculine, why are you like a woman?

The man got angry - the women brought it on, bitches. The woman got angry - vixen, bitch, angry, bitch, it’s time to heal your nerves

A man does not want children (or a man only wants a son - an heir!)

A man should work as an engineer, trainer, programmer, driver - in short, the main thing is not all sorts of womanish idleness!

If a man doesn’t give a girl gifts, he’s worthless

A man doesn’t like to talk, show emotions, and in general, a man is a serious person, and leave all this nonsense to the women