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1. Special psychology as a science (definition and basic concepts)
2. Subject and object of study of special psychology
3. Tasks of special psychology
4. The relationship of special psychology with related sciences
5. Subject areas of special psychology
6. Principles of psychological study of abnormal children
7. Methods of psychological study of abnormal children
8. History of the development of special psychology as a science in Russia
9. Current state of special psychology
10. Methodological foundations of special psychology
11. The concepts of “abnormal development”, “abnormal child”, “defect”
12. Theories of defect compensation. L.S. Vygotsky on defect and compensation
13. Modern criteria for deviant development
14. Causes of abnormal mental development
15. Children with mental retardation
16. Forms of mental retardation
17. Training and education of children with severe mental retardation in Russia
18. Oligophrenia (concept, causes)
19. Classification of oligophrenia
20. Psychological and pedagogical characteristics of children with mental retardation
21. Diagnosis of oligophrenia
22. Children with mental retardation
23. Main options for mental retardation
24. Psychological and pedagogical characteristics of children with mental retardation
25. Distorted mental development (the concept of early childhood autism syndrome, the causes of its occurrence
26. Clinical and psychological structure of early childhood autism
as a special form of underdevelopment
27. Psychological and pedagogical characteristics of an autistic child
28. Disharmonious mental development. Psychopathy as a form of disharmonious personality
29. Classification of psychopathy. Characteristics of types of psychopathy
30. Psychological and pedagogical characteristics of children with psychopathy
31. Children with hearing impairment (concept and causes of
32. Psychological and pedagogical characteristics of children with hearing impairments
34. Children with visual impairments (concept and causes)
35. Classification of visual impairments
36. Psychological and pedagogical characteristics of blind children
37. Psychological and pedagogical characteristics of visually impaired children
38. Children with motor impairments. general characteristics
39. Cerebral palsy (CP). Causes and forms of cerebral palsy
40. Psychological and pedagogical characteristics of children with motor impairments
41. Children with speech disorders (concept and causes)
42. Classification of speech disorders
43. Psychological and pedagogical characteristics of children with speech disorders
44. Children with complex defects
45. The problem of integrating abnormal children into society
46. Special pedagogy (definition and basic concepts)
47. Subject and object of special pedagogy
48. Objectives of special pedagogy
49. The relationship of special pedagogy with other sciences
50. Branches of special pedagogy
51. History of the development of special pedagogy in Russia
52. History of the development of special pedagogy abroad
53. Current state of special pedagogy
54. Technologies and methods of special pedagogy
55. Preschool education for children with developmental problems
56. School system of special education
57. Vocational guidance and adaptation of persons with disabilities
58. General characteristics of the fundamental principles of special pedagogy
59. The principle of pedagogical optimism and its importance in organizing work with children with developmental problems
60. The principle of early pedagogical assistance to children with developmental disabilities and its significance
61. The principle of correctional and compensatory orientation of the pedagogical process of special educational institutions
and his role
62. The essence of the principle of socially adaptive orientation of the special pedagogical process
63. Characteristics of the principle of the activity approach and its significance in special pedagogy
64. The principle of a differentiated and individual approach, its importance in pedagogical work with children with developmental problems
65. General characteristics of teaching methods for children with developmental disabilities
66. Method of story and explanation. Features of its use in the educational process of a special (correctional) school
67. Conversation method. The originality of its use in the educational process of a special (correctional) school
68. Method of working with a book. The specifics of its use in the educational process of a special (correctional) school
69. Visual methods. Features of their use in the educational process of a special (correctional) school
70. Practical methods. Their significance and features of use in the educational process of a special (correctional) school
71. Professional activity of a teacher-defectologist
72. Characteristics of forms of organization of the educational process in a special (correctional) school
73. A lesson is the main form of organizing the educational process. Requirements for a modern lesson in a special (correctional) school
74. Types of lessons in a special (correctional) school, specifics of their implementation
75. The originality of using methods for testing and assessing students’ knowledge
in a special (correctional) school
76. Organization and content of correctional developmental education for children with mental retardation
77. Main directions of correctional pedagogical work with mentally retarded schoolchildren
78. Education system for people with hearing impairments in Russia
79. The uniqueness of the learning process for children with hearing impairments
80. Education system for people with visual impairments in modern Russia
81. Features of teaching children with visual impairments
82. Methods for correcting childhood autism
83. System of assistance to children suffering from cerebral palsy
84. Education of persons with complex developmental disabilities
85. Psychological and pedagogical support for the development of a child with a complex defect
86. The problem of early detection of developmental disorders and ways to solve it in modern Russia
87. System of prevention, diagnosis and provision of early comprehensive assistance to children with developmental disorders in Russia
88. Policy in the field of social and pedagogical assistance to persons with disabilities in Russia
89. The problem of integration in the special education system and ways to solve it in Russia
90. The problem of differentiation in the special education system and ways to solve it in Russia
1. SPECIAL PSYCHOLOGY AS A SCIENCE (DEFINITION AND BASIC CONCEPTS)
special psychology defect child education
Special psychology is a branch of psychological science about the patterns of development, education, training and preparation for social adaptation and rehabilitation of various categories of children with developmental disabilities. This deviation is usually associated with a congenital or acquired disorder of the formation of the nervous system. In the system of psychological sciences, special psychology is given a special place. The concept of “special psychology” has many synonyms: correctional psychology, psychology of abnormal development, psychology of children with developmental disabilities, etc.
The main task of special psychology is the formation of an adequate personality as a result of the use of special methods and techniques of education and training, on the basis of which compensation for impaired functions occurs. Based on data from special psychology, a system of training, education and social adaptation of persons with various developmental disabilities is being built. In addition, through special psychology, the most effective methods of training this category of people are determined, and a subsequent system of professional consultation and vocational guidance is built.
In the course of long-term practice of studying the category of persons with developmental disabilities, a body of certain psychological knowledge has accumulated. Special psychology at the early stage of its development did not have its own terminology, and most of the terms were borrowed from medicine. Basically, these were terms denoting various anatomical and physiological deviations in this category. Thus, the terms “defect”, “anomaly”, “diagnosis”, “blind”, “deaf-mute”, “correction”, etc. were borrowed from medicine. The establishment of the etiology and symptoms of deviations in mental and physical development became the beginning of the construction of a conceptual-categorical apparatus special psychology. One of the main concepts of special psychology is the concept of “mental development”. Mental development is understood as a natural change over time in a person’s mental processes, which is expressed in qualitative, quantitative and structural transformations. The famous Russian psychologist L. S. Vygotott established that the mental development of abnormal children obeys the same laws as the mental development of a normal child. Abnormal development is a disruption of the general course of development of a child as a result of physical or mental abnormalities.
The central issue of both special psychology and related sciences is the problem of compensation of functions. Compensation for any defect is understood as compensation for impaired or underdeveloped functions through the use of preserved functions or the restructuring of partially impaired functions, i.e., in the process of compensation for lost or damaged functions, it is quite possible to involve new structures in the work that previously performed a different function or participated in performing other functions.
2. SUBJECT AND OBJECT OF STUDY OF SPECIAL PSYCHOLOGY
The object of modern special psychology is the study of individuals with developmental disabilities. The study of persons with developmental disabilities is one of the most important practical tasks of special psychology. It provides invaluable materials necessary for the differential diagnosis of abnormal development and the development of appropriate psychodiagnostic techniques. The study of persons with developmental disabilities is carried out taking into account a number of principles: the principle of an integrated approach to the study of the child, the principle of his holistic study, the principle of dynamic study of the child, the principle of the unity of qualitative and quantitative approaches in assessing mental development, etc.
The subject of research in special psychology as a branch of scientific knowledge is children with developmental problems, or, as they are also called abnormal children. The category of abnormal children includes children who, as a result of a mental or physiological abnormality, have a disturbance in their general development. In special psychology, in accordance with the historically established system of educational institutions for children with developmental disabilities and with the system of subject areas of special psychology, the classification is traditionally based on the nature of the disorder. There are main categories of abnormal children: children with hearing impairment, visual impairment, and severe speech impairment;
with impaired intellectual development, with complex disorders of psychophysiological development, with disorders of the musculoskeletal system.
In addition to the listed groups, there are others, groups of children with developmental disabilities: children with psycho-patho-like forms of behavior, children with difficulties in adapting to school, gifted children suffering from so-called school neuroses and requiring special attention from teachers and psychologists.
There is also a more generalized classification, which is based on the grouping of the above categories of disorders in accordance with the localization of the disorders in a particular system of the body:
1) somatic disorders (chronic diseases, musculoskeletal disorders
2) sensory impairment (hearing and vision);
3) disorders of brain activity (mental retardation, movement disorders, mental and speech disorders).
The composition of the group of children with developmental problems is complex and diverse. Various developmental disorders have different effects on the development of children’s cognitive abilities and work activity. Disturbances in the mental or physical development of a child affect the entire course of development of his cognitive activity.
3. TASKS OF SPECIAL PSYCHOLOGY
1. General scientific theoretical tasks:
1) disclosure of general patterns of mental development of a normally developing child and an abnormal child;
2) disclosure of general patterns inherent in all groups of abnormal children;
3) study of specific patterns of mental development in different groups of abnormal children;
4) establishing the dependence of mental development on the nature, mechanisms and severity of a particular anomaly.
2. Study of developmental disorders of specific forms of mental activity in different groups of abnormal children.
3. Identification of ways to compensate for disorders of personality development in general and various types of mental processes. Compensation for any defect is the compensation of impaired or underdeveloped functions through the use of intact functions or the restructuring of partially impaired functions. In the process of compensating for lost or damaged psychological functions, it is quite possible to involve new structures that previously performed a different function or participated in the implementation of other functions.
4. Development of basic types of training and education of different groups of abnormal children.
5. Development of methods of psychological correction and diagnostic techniques for various types of mental development disorders. Competent diagnosis of developmental disorders is the key to successful psychological correction, targeted training and education within a special educational institution. However, many diagnostic techniques and methods of psychological correction do not meet the modern requirements of special psychology, and therefore their revision, and in some cases the development of new methods, is necessary.
6. Identification of the most effective ways and methods of psychological influence on the mental development of children and adults with various developmental disabilities.
7. Study of psychological problems of integration and integrated learning. Integration into society of persons with developmental disabilities means providing such a person with opportunities to take part in all types of social life on an equal basis with other members of society. Integration in education means the opportunity for persons with special educational needs to receive education both in a special educational institution and in a general educational institution. However, as has already been confirmed by experiments, Russian society is not yet ready (primarily psychologically) for this kind of educational innovation.
8. Development of the psychological foundations of the content of education, principles, methods, technologies, organization of the implementation of the conditions of special education.
9. Interaction of special psychology with a number of related sciences, in particular with general psychology and special pedagogy, on problems relating to people with developmental disorders and, as a result, with limited ability to live.
4. RELATIONSHIP OF SPECIAL PSYCHOLOGY WITH RELATED SCIENCES
Special psychology is associated with many other sciences, which can be combined into several blocks:
1) medical block - physiology, anatomy, neuropathology, psychiatry, ophthalmology, etc.;
2) humanitarian block - sociology, philosophy, psychology in all its varieties, etc.;
3) pedagogical block - general pedagogy, methods of teaching various subjects, etc. The relationship of psychology with medicine and pedagogy contributes to the formation of a scientific holistic view of the mental and physical development of a person with disabilities, and also makes it possible to successfully eliminate the one-sided view of each of these disciplines . Special psychology is closely related to medicine and its various branches: anatomy and physiology of humans of different ages in normal and pathological conditions, neuropathology, neuroanatomy and physiology, psychopathology, psychiatry, psychotherapy, human genetics, pediatrics, orthopedics, otorhinolaryngology and some others. Psychological and medical knowledge are closely intertwined into the same facts, and phenomena receive both medical and psychological interpretation. This approach allows us to obtain a comprehensive, systemic vision of the problem of human physical and mental development, and the ability to overcome negative trends in development.
Special psychology, together with special pedagogy, contributes to the development, consolidation and strengthening of the effect achieved with the help of medicine. The totality of basic knowledge from all medical sciences constitutes the clinical basis for special psychology. In addition, special psychology owes most of its terms to medicine. Basically, these are terms denoting various anatomical and physiological deviations in this category. Thus, the following terms were borrowed from medicine: “psyche”, “anomaly”, “autism”, “dementia”, etc. The establishment of the etiology and symptoms of deviations in mental and physical development became the beginning of the construction of special psychology’s own conceptual and categorical apparatus. Based on data from special psychology, a system of training, education and social adaptation of persons with various types of developmental disorders is being built. Psychological knowledge determines the most effective methods of training for this category of people and the possibility of their further professional guidance.
In the construction of a holistic theory of special psychology, the leading role is given to the block of humanities, such as philosophy, sociology, political science, which allows one to integrate knowledge from different fields. Understanding the current state of special psychology is possible by considering the socio-philosophical aspect, which considers the phenomena of special psychology in a sociocultural context. The most important and conceptual problems, the immediate prospects for the development of special psychology, can only be solved at the philosophical level with the participation of many specialists.
5. SUBJECT AREAS OF SPECIAL PSYCHOLOGY
Special psychology (from the Latin specialts - “special”) is a branch of psychology that studies people with deviations from the norm in mental development associated with congenital or acquired defects. Based on data from special psychology, a system of training and education of people with mental development anomalies, their professional consultation and professional selection are built. The main task of special psychology is the formation of an adequate personality as a result of the use of special methods and techniques of education and training, on the basis of which compensation for impaired functions occurs. In addition, through special psychology, the most effective methods of training this category of people are determined, and a subsequent system of professional consultation and vocational guidance is built. Special psychology has become the basis for the development of a number of industries. At the moment, they represent developed and independent spheres of practical and scientific pedagogical knowledge. These include the following industries.
1. Typhlopsychology is part of special psychology. This science studies people with visual impairments. The main objectives of typhlopsychology are: a comprehensive comprehensive study of vision and its various disorders, anomalies of physical and mental development in these disorders, ways of correction and compensation, restoration of impaired or underdeveloped functions, creation of conditions for the formation and comprehensive development of the personality in case of development | ^personal visual impairment. " (
2. Deaf psychology is a science that studies the category of people with various hearing impairments. The main objectives of deaf psychology are: a comprehensive study of persons with various hearing impairments, identification of the basic patterns of mastering this category by special education, principles of work aimed at social adaptation and socio-professional rehabilitation.
3. Oligophrenopsychology is a science that is a system of scientific knowledge about the mental development and its characteristics of persons with mental retardation. Recently, new branches of oligophrenopsychology have begun to develop intensively.
4. The psychology of children with musculoskeletal disorders is based on knowledge in the field of neuropathology, neurophysiology, psychology and other sciences. The main goal of this branch of special psychology is to study the developmental features of persons with cerebral palsy, the formation of their personality in order to create special living conditions, training and subsequent work activities for this category of persons.
5. The psychology of children with mental retardation studies the developmental characteristics of this category of children. This is a large group of children with minimal organic damage or functional failure of the central nervous system.
6. Psychology of children with complex disorders is part of special psychology. Complex developmental disorders include a combination of two or more psychophysical disorders in one child. The main goals of this subject area are to find an alternative way to compensate for the defect and lead the child out of the situation of socio-cultural dead end.
6. PRINCIPLES OF PSYCHOLOGICAL STUDY OF ABNORMAL CHILDREN
The psychological study of children with developmental disabilities is one of the most important practical tasks of special psychology. Psychological study provides invaluable materials necessary for the differential diagnosis of abnormal development and the development of appropriate psychodiagnostic techniques. In their practical work, special psychologists, when examining children with developmental disorders, are guided by certain principles.
1. The principle of an integrated approach to the study of a child. This principle involves conducting a comprehensive examination of the developmental features of all types of cognitive activity of the child, his emotional-volitional sphere, abilities, skills and the entire personality as a whole. The examination involves the use of various psychodiagnostic techniques, which is an important part of the overall diagnostic system. The principle of an integrated approach to the study of a child involves not only psychological research, but also an analysis of the state of the child’s nervous system, its sensory and motor spheres. In accordance with the principle of an integrated approach, psychologists, defectologists, teachers of the deaf, neurologists, psychiatrists, etc., examine the child.
2. The principle of holistic study of the child. This principle is based on the position of L.S. Vygotsky about the structure of the defect, which allows for a systematic analysis of the disorder. A holistic analysis when examining a child with a developmental disorder involves not detecting individual manifestations of mental development disorders, but identifying the causes of their occurrence and establishing a connection between them. This helps to identify the main features of the child’s cognitive sphere, his interests, hobbies and personality as a whole.
3. The principle of dynamic study of the child. The basis for highlighting this principle is the position of L.S. Vygotsky on the relationship between learning and child development. L.S. Vygotsky identified the child’s zone of proximal development, which implied the level of difficulty of problems solved by the child independently, and the zone of proximal development, i.e., the level of difficulty of problems solved by the child under the guidance of an adult. In accordance with this principle, when studying a child, it is necessary to find out the knowledge, skills, the child's skills, as well as the potential capabilities of children. The implementation of the principle of dynamic study of a child involves the use, along with diagnostic techniques, of techniques that make it possible to determine the zone of proximal development.
4. The principle of unity of qualitative and quantitative approaches in assessing mental development. When implementing this principle, it is assumed to analyze the process of completing a task (rationality, sequence of operations, logic, persistence in achieving a goal, bringing work on a task to its logical conclusion, etc.) and taking into account the final result of the activity. In this case, the interrelationship of qualitative and quantitative indicators is taken into account.
7. METHODS OF PSYCHOLOGICAL STUDY OF ABNORMAL CHILDREN
Methods of psychological study are those techniques and means by which psychologists and defectologists obtain reliable information about the intellectual, speech and physical development of abnormal children.
1. The most common and simplest method in terms of its organization is observation. There are several surveillance options: external, internal, free, standardized, enabled and third-party. When applied to a group of abnormal children, all variants of this method are used, depending on the goal of the special psychologist. External observation is convenient if the researcher collects data on the behavior of an abnormal child, his performance of any tasks, etc. This type of observation is convenient and simple, it allows you to observe an abnormal child from the outside and easily determine deviations in his development. Free observation does not have a pre-established program framework or procedure for its implementation. During free observation, depending on the wishes of the researcher, the subject and object of observation may change. It is used when a special psychologist does not know in advance the signs and course of the phenomenon under consideration, the personality traits of an abnormal child. Standardized observation has a clear plan and program and strictly follows them, regardless of what happens to the abnormal child. Participant observation involves the participation of the psychologist himself in the process. For example, he may interact with an abnormal child or take part in a game organized by children with developmental disabilities. Third-party observation does not imply the personal participation of the researcher in the process he is studying.
2. Conversation as a method of psychological research is used by psychologists in relation to abnormal children quite often. By asking certain questions, analyzing the answers received and the reaction of the anomalous child, the researcher receives information about his ideas about the world around him, himself, about his attitude to certain concepts and phenomena.
3. Testing is a convenient method of psychological study of abnormal children. Using testing during the examination process, it is possible to obtain an accurate quantitative or qualitative characteristic of the intellectual, speech and physical development of an abnormal child. This type of psychological research requires a clear procedure for collecting and processing primary data, as well as the originality of their subsequent interpretation. In addition, testing makes it possible to give differentiated and comparable assessments of the level of formation of various aspects of the personality of an anomalous child, the development of his thinking, speech, etc. The following test options are common in special psychology: questionnaire test, task test and projective test.
4. Experiments as a method of mental research in abnormal children are not used as often as observation, conversation and testing. The peculiarity of this method is that it purposefully and thoughtfully creates an artificial situation in which the studied property of the personality or thinking of an anomalous child is manifested in one way or another.
8. HISTORY OF THE DEVELOPMENT OF SPECIAL PSYCHOLOGY AS A SCIENCE IN RUSSIA
Special psychology as a branch of psychological science began to develop in Russia in the 20s. XX century Before this, medicine studied the psyche of abnormal children. In 1935, the world's first experimental psychological laboratory was created in Russia to study the psyche of abnormal children. It was headed by the famous domestic defectologist D.V. Zaikosh, under whose leadership the study of the characteristics of students in a special school, manifested in junior and senior school age, as well as the ways of development of these children in the conditions of a specially organized learning process, took place. Domestic special psychology was formed as a comparative psychology of a normally developing child and a child with developmental disabilities. Research was carried out on the problems of the development of cognitive activity, the emotional-volitional sphere, the personality of an anomalous child, based on clinical data obtained by domestic psychiatrists: I.S. Pvva-Ivr, F. Scheu and others. They studied in detail the issues of etiology and pathogenesis of abnormal development, issues of distinguishing children with developmental disorders from similar conditions, and gave a detailed description of this category of children.
At the end of the 50s. XX century defectologists studied the characteristics of higher nervous activity of children with intellectual disabilities. Research on the cognitive activity of this group of children had a clear pedagogical focus and provided materials for the development of didactic principles and methodological ways of teaching and raising children with developmental disabilities. The works of domestic psychologists have shown that children with developmental disabilities are characterized by immaturity of the entire psyche as a whole. In addition, it was found that the most general patterns of mental development are characteristic of both normally developing and abnormal children. In the works of L.V. Zashsov reflected the following observations: insufficiency of all structural components of thinking, weakness of mental operations, especially generalization and abstraction, gross violation of verbal and logical thinking. According to a number of defectologists, by the end of middle school age, subject to targeted correctional psychological work, the weakness of motivation for mental activity improves. Thanks to the work of famous domestic defectologists V.G. Petrova, G.M. Dulnesh and a number of others, data were obtained on the possibility of speech correction in children with intellectual disabilities during the learning process: increasing the volume of the active vocabulary, correcting the grammatical structure of speech, improving oral and written speech. In the works of domestic defectologists, it has been proven that the mental development of abnormal children is characterized not only by shortcomings, but they also have broad potential for the development of thinking. This is confirmed by the research of L.S. Vygotsky that in the process of correctional education, children with developmental disabilities develop complex types of mental activity.
9. CURRENT STATE OF SPECIAL PSYCHOLOGY
The psychology of a child with developmental disabilities is one of the well-studied branches of special psychology. Researchers from leading scientific centers in Moscow, St. Petersburg, Yekaterinburg and other Russian cities are working to resolve its problems. The main problems of modern special psychology are:
1) the problem of early diagnosis of deviations in child development.
Experts believe that the basic patterns of development in a child with a developmental disorder are the same as in a normal child. When detecting abnormalities in a child early, one must be extremely careful and attentive when making a diagnosis, since the presence of any single symptom is not enough for this. Therefore, the diagnosis of developmental disorders must be comprehensive, systemic in nature; records of psychological, pedagogical, neurological and neuropsychological examination data must be kept;
2) issues of differentiated diagnosis of mental retardation and a number of other disorders in mental development.
Along with mental retardation, there are several superficially similar conditions. These are mental retardation, pedagogical neglect, general speech underdevelopment, developmental delay as a result of visual or hearing impairment in children, early childhood autism. All these deviations have manifestations similar to mental retardation, therefore it is important to develop methods that can distinguish between these conditions. This concept was further developed in the works of the domestic defectologist V.I. Lubovsky (“Psychological problems in diagnosing abnormal development of children”, etc.). IN AND. Lubovsky analyzes the history and current state, as well as the prospects for differentiated diagnosis of various forms of disorders of the psychological development of a child. He attached great importance to the development of nonverbal methods for the comparative study of various groups of abnormal children. IN AND. Lubovsky proposed a model for differentiated diagnosis of mental retardation, general speech underdevelopment and mental retardation. The main criterion was the state of the child’s speech and thinking, as well as the ability to learn.
The problem of differentiated diagnosis of various developmental disorders has been highlighted in a number of works. Korobeinikov. He developed a set of experimental tasks for the comparative study of oligophrenia and mental retardation in children 6-7 years old. E.A. Strebeleva proposed experimental diagnostic materials for identifying mental retardation in preschool children at every year of life.
10. METHODOLOGICAL BASIS OF SPECIAL PSYCHOLOGY
The history of the creation of the theoretical foundations of special psychology and its methodology is closely connected with the name of the outstanding Russian psychologist Ya.S. Vygotsky in the 20s. XX century On the basis of the theory he created for the development of higher mental functions, he formulated and substantiated modern ideas about the nature and essence of abnormal development.
The methodological foundations of special psychology, like all general psychology, are based on the methodological principles of dialectical materialism. They act in relation to psychology as a general philosophical system of explanatory principles. Three principles are most important for understanding abnormal development: the principle of determinism, the principle of development, and the principle of the unity of consciousness and activity. These principles act as general scientific principles of psychology.
1. The principle of determinism is when real natural and mental processes are determined, that is, they arise, develop and are destroyed naturally, as a result of the action of certain causes. Determinism is the fundamental principle of materialism. Determinism is a methodological principle according to which, from the fact that everything in the world is interconnected and caused by a cause, it follows that it is possible to know and predict events that have both a clearly defined and probabilistic nature. It also means that all psychological phenomena are understood as phenomena causally determined by objective reality and are a reflection of objective reality. All mental phenomena are considered to be caused by the activity of the brain. This principle presupposes, when studying mental phenomena, the obligatory establishment of the causes that caused these phenomena.
2. The principle of development. This principle is expressed in the fact that all mental phenomena are considered as constantly developing quantitatively and qualitatively. A correct assessment of a child’s mental state is possible by studying the dynamics of his development.
3. The principle of the unity of consciousness and activity means a two-way connection between consciousness and activity. On the one hand, a person’s consciousness, his psyche are formed in activity, on the other hand, activity is a reflection of a person’s level of consciousness. Only in activity can one establish the characteristics of mental properties, states, and processes. This principle requires a defectologist to study the mental development of an abnormal child in the process of various activities. Only in this case is it possible to form new mental processes and correct impaired functions in activity.
Special psychology accumulates theoretical methods of practical work necessary for the development of other areas of psychology. The study of mental characteristics of different categories of children with gross developmental anomalies contributes to the understanding of the patterns of mental ontogenesis in normal conditions. Helping to overcome the difficult problems of teaching and raising children with gross developmental anomalies, special psychology has accumulated means of resolving the learning difficulties of children who do not have such pronounced disorders.
11. CONCEPTS OF “ABNORMAL DEVELOPMENT”, “ABNORMAL CHILD”, “DEFECT”
Abnormal development is a disruption of the general course of human development as a result of any physical or mental defects. The term “anomalous” is based on the Greek word “anomalos”, which translated into Russian means “wrong”.
Children who, as a result of a mental or physiological abnormality, have a disturbance in their general development are considered abnormal. The main categories of abnormal children include children: 1) with hearing impairment (deaf, hard of hearing, late deaf);
2) with visual impairment (blind, visually impaired);
3) with severe speech development disorders;
4) with intellectual development disorders (children with mental retardation, mentally retarded children);
5) with complex disorders of psychophysiological development (deaf-blind, blind, mentally retarded, deaf, mentally retarded, etc.);
6) with musculoskeletal disorders. In addition to the listed groups, there are other groups of children with developmental disabilities:
1) children with psychopathic forms of behavior;
2) children with difficulties in adapting to school, suffering from so-called school neuroses;
3) gifted children who require special attention from teachers and psychologists.
The composition of the group of abnormal children is complex and diverse. Various developmental disorders have different effects on the formation of children's social connections, their cognitive capabilities and work activity. Depending on the nature and time of the disorder, some defects can be completely overcome during the child’s development, others can only be compensated, and others can only be corrected. The nature and level of complexity of a particular defect in the process of normal development of an individual determine the appropriate forms of pedagogical work with it. Disturbances in the mental or physical development of a child affect the entire course of development of his cognitive activity.
The concept of “defect” is based on the Latin word “defectus” - “flaw”. Each defect has its own structure. The concept of “defect structure” was introduced by the famous Russian psychologist D. S. Vypit-spi. Thus, any deviation, for example, impairment of hearing, vision, speech, entails secondary deviations, and in the absence of appropriate corrective work, also tertiary deviations. With different primary causes, some secondary deviations have similar manifestations, especially in infancy, early childhood or preschool age. Secondary deviations are systemic in nature and their presence causes changes in the entire structure of the child’s mental development. Overcoming primary defects is possible under the condition of competent medical intervention, when the elimination of secondary deviations occurs through correctional and pedagogical intervention. The need for the earliest possible correction of secondary disorders is due to the characteristics of the mental development of children: changes in the hierarchical relationships between the primary and secondary defects.
12. THEORIES OF DEFECT COMPENSATION. L.S. VYGOTSKY ON DEFECT AND COMPENSATION
Compensation for any defect is understood as compensation for impaired or underdeveloped functions through the use of preserved functions or the restructuring of partially impaired functions, i.e., in the process of compensation for lost or damaged functions, it is quite possible to involve new structures in the work that previously performed a different function or participated in performing other functions. Experts distinguish two types of defect compensation.
1. Compensation for the defect occurs at the intrasystem level and is carried out through the involvement of intact elements of the affected structures.
2. Compensation occurs at the intersystem level and is carried out through the restructuring of systems and the inclusion of completely different structures in the work.
Most often, two types of defect compensation are observed at once, this is especially important in cases of congenital or early acquired defects.
There are several theories of defect compensation. One of the most widespread theories belongs to the Austrian psychiatrist and psychologist A. Adler. It is based on the principle of the unity of the psychological life of the individual, assigning the leading place to the social factor in the mental development of a person. The author of this theory believes that the formation of an individual’s personality occurs, as a rule, in the first 5-6 years of life, when their first way of thinking and acting in all subsequent periods of development is determined. Man, according to A. Adler's theory, is the most biologically unadapted creature. (Based on this, he develops a feeling of inferiority, which is aggravated by the presence of any mental or physical defect in the child. At the same time, awareness of his own inferiority becomes in the future for a person a constant incentive for development. A person, trying to overcome his defect and assert himself in society, actualizes all its other capabilities.
In his numerous works, the domestic psychologist L.S. Vngotezh analyzed previously existing views on the problem of compensation for defects. He believed that compensatory capabilities are fully realized if the defect is conscious. The level of compensation is determined by the body's reserve forces and external social conditions. When any function is lost, other organs begin to perform functions that they do not usually perform during the normal functioning of the organ. The main compensatory path of people with various disorders L.S. Vygotsky saw their inclusion in active work. Thanks to this, the possibility of forming higher forms of cooperation is ensured and conditions are created for full integration into society. L.S. Vygotsky highly appreciated the possibilities of compensation in people with sensory impairments. He believed that many types of work activities were available to them, the exception of which were those areas that were directly related to the existing violation. Provisions of L.S. Vygotsky’s idea of compensation for defects was of great importance for the further development of all branches of special pedagogy.
13. MODERN CRITERIA FOR DEVIANT DEVELOPMENT
In modern defectology it is hardly possible to find comprehensive, unambiguous criteria for deviant development. This is especially necessary when determining the degree and nature of the deviation when answering the question: is it within normal limits or is it pathological. Criteria for assessing deviations in childhood were proposed by the English psychiatrist I. Rittfr
1. When assessing a child’s development, it is necessary to take into account that the differentiation of normal and abnormal behavior cannot be absolute.
2. It is important to consider the degree of deviation. Individual symptoms are much more common than a whole series of symptoms at the same time. The category of children with multiple mental development disorders requires special attention, when a violation of one area negatively affects the development of other areas.
3. Frequency of occurrence and severity of symptoms. It is necessary to find out the frequency and duration of manifestation of certain adverse symptoms. For children, moderately manifested deviations are considered more typical than serious, frequently recurring disorders.
4. Situational variability of the symptom. When identifying developmental deviations, it is necessary to pay attention to the situation in which the deviation manifests itself. And although this criterion is considered far from the most important, it can provide invaluable assistance in predicting the dynamics of development of a child with developmental disabilities.
5. In the process of analyzing a child’s development, it is necessary to compare the characteristics of his development not only with the characteristics characteristic of all children of a given age group, but also with the characteristics characteristic of this child. Significant attention should be paid to those manifestations in development, the presence of which is difficult to explain by the laws of normal maturation and development.
6. A separate criterion is taking into account the age characteristics and gender of the child. As experts note, some behavioral features are normal only for children of a certain age.
7. Duration of persistence of a certain developmental deviation. If the observed deviation continues for several months, then under the influence of a certain correction it can be smoothed out. If the deviation lasts more than a year and corrective efforts are ineffective, then this should raise alarm.
8. Child development never goes smoothly: it always has its peaks and its valleys. Also, the manifestation of various developmental disorders depends on the circumstances of the child’s life. A dysfunctional family, the loss of parents, frequent changes of place of residence, a bilingual education system, constant long-term stress - all this can easily cause developmental deviations.
According to M. Rattar, when deciding on deviations from the norm in a child’s development, it is necessary to take into account a combination of all the above criteria. However, in some cases they are not enough.
14. REASONS FOR ANOMAL DEVELOPMENT OF THE PSYCHE
The causes of abnormal mental development are numerous and varied and can be caused by various factors. They are usually divided into three large groups: exposures during intrauterine development, at the time of birth and in the postpartum period. In addition, the combination of intrauterine and birth pathology is called perinatal damage. Adverse factors during the perinatal period
1) intrauterine infections of a chronic nature: syphilis, toxoplasmosis, cytomegaly, listeriosis, etc.;
2) intrauterine infections of a viral nature: rubella, measles, influenza, mumps, chicken pox, etc. In late pregnancy, acute infectious diseases of the mother can lead to intrauterine infection of the fetus and cause intrauterine encephalitis and meningoscephalitis;
4) the use of medications that are contraindicated during pregnancy and that can cause fetal toxicity; fruit expellants, hormonal drugs, etc.;
7) various physical and mental traumas suffered by a woman during pregnancy: the mother’s work before and during the intrauterine development of the child in hazardous work, unfavorable environmental conditions (for example, increased background radiation, exposure to ultraviolet radiation from certain substances).
Pathology of labor. In the natal period (the moment of birth), pathogenic factors are unskilled obstetric care, rapid, rapid labor, long labor with stimulation, the use of forceps, birth injuries to the brain, asphyxia (entanglement of the child with the umbilical cord, which leads to suffocation), etc. Postnatal pathological effects. In the postnatal period, various neuroinfections can cause abnormal development of the psyche: meningitis, meningoencephalitis, parainfectious encephalitis, brain tumors, infectious diseases with complications on the brain, open and closed skull injuries, concussions, etc. The likelihood of abnormal development of the psyche increases in premature babies who were born premature or underweight. Also, developmental disorders can occur with sleep and nutritional disorders in children, with long-term somatic diseases that cause damage to the child’s central nervous system and general exhaustion of the body.
Defects in mental development can be caused by functional reasons, including socio-pedagogical neglect, limited emotional positive communication between adults and a child, limited speech contacts, bilingualism in the family, etc. Disorders due to functional reasons are milder than others, and when unfavorable ones are eliminated factors, and then, with competent correctional work, the child can catch up with his peers.
15. CHILDREN WITH MENTAL RETURN
The category of mentally retarded includes persons with persistent irreversible impairment of cognitive activity due to organic damage to the cerebral cortex. In mental retardation, brain damage is irreversible and diffuse. Another characteristic feature is a violation of higher mental functions. This is expressed in disruption of cognitive processes, emotional-volitional sphere, motor skills and abnormal development of the entire personality as a whole.
The causes of mental retardation are many and varied. Experts have found that the degree of decline in intelligence depends on the time of exposure to a particular pathogenic factor. If brain damage occurs in the first 3 months of pregnancy, for example due to the mother's illness with rubella, this will cause mental retardation in the child. Disturbances that occur at a later date will be less pronounced and will cause delayed mental and speech development. Mental retardation can be caused by various types of pathogenic factors that have an irreversible effect on the fetus during intrauterine development. These include:
1) intrauterine infections of a chronic nature: syphilis, toxoplasmosis, cytomegaly, listeriosis, etc.;
2) intrauterine viral infections: rubella, measles, influenza, chicken pox, etc.
In late pregnancy, acute infectious diseases of the mother can lead to intrauterine infection of the fetus and cause intrauterine encephalitis and meningoencephalitis;
3) chronic diseases of the mother, such as diseases of the kidneys, cardiovascular system, liver, etc.;
4) the use of medications that are contraindicated during pregnancy and that can cause fetal intoxication: fetal expellants, hormonal drugs, etc.;
5) immunological conflict between the child and mother regarding the Rh factor or blood group antigens;
6) bad habits of the mother: smoking, alcoholism, drug addiction, etc.;
7) various physical and mental traumas suffered by a woman during pregnancy: work in hazardous industries, unfavorable environmental conditions (for example, increased background radiation, exposure to ultraviolet radiation, toxic substances).
In the natal period (the moment of birth), pathogenic factors are birth injuries to the brain, asphyxia, etc. In the postnatal period, various neuroinfections can cause mental retardation: meningitis, meningoencephalitis, parainfectious encephalitis.
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Discipline "FUNDAMENTALS OF SPECIAL PSYCHOLOGY"
Lecture 5
Principles and methods of special psychology
Questions:
- Philosophical and general psychological principles used by special psychology.
- Specific principles of special psychology.
- The concept of the scientific method. Methods of special psychology.
Philosophical and general psychological principles used by special psychology: the principle of reflectivity, the principle of determinism, the principle of the unity of consciousness and activity, the genetic principle. The concept of systemogenesis. Specific principles of special psychology: the principle of complexity, the principle of systemic structural-dynamic study, the principle of qualitative analysis, the comparative principle, the principle of early diagnostic study, the principle of identifying and taking into account the child’s potential, the principle of the unity of diagnostic and correctional assistance for children with special needs.
The concept of the scientific method. Methods of collecting information. Conversation method. Observation as a method in special psychology, its originality in the process of studying individuals with special needs. Features of self-observation. Types and forms of experimental techniques used in special psychology. Features of using the experimental method. Standardized psychodiagnostic procedures and their use. Method of questionnaires and surveys. Method of analyzing activity products. Anamnestic method in the process of studying various forms of impaired development.
- Philosophical and general psychological principles used by special psychology: the principle of reflectivity, the principle of determinism, the principle of the unity of consciousness and activity, the genetic principle. The concept of systemogenesis.
In addition to the categorical apparatus itself, each science hasa system of explanatory principles, extremely general concepts, the use of which allows for a relatively consistent and consistent understanding and explanation of the phenomena being studied.These representations act as a kind of coordinate system that helps to navigate empirical data, classify and understand them. Applied sciences use a system of principles created within the framework of fundamental disciplines. Therefore, the principles formulated in general psychology are common to all branches of psychological science. But the principles operate only within one psychological school; they are not universal. For example, the explanatory principles of psychoanalysis do not apply to humanistic psychology and vice versa. We will speak within the framework of the national psychological school.
- The most general principle isreflectivity.Its essence boils down to the fact that all mental phenomena, in all their diversity, represent a special, higher form of reflection of the surrounding world in the form of images, concepts, and experiences. The fundamental properties of mental reflection are its subjectivity, activity, selectivity and purposefulness. No, even the most severe pathological disturbances of mental activity will change its reflective essence. We can only talk about reducing the degree of adequacy of reflection, turning an adequate reflection into a false one, as, for example, with hallucinations.
Reflection may suffer in terms of completeness, accuracy, depth, but it always remains fundamentally adequate, on the whole, true, correct. Rich experimental material obtained from studying different groups of children with developmental disabilities convincingly proves this position. An example would be cases of severe sensory impairment, such as deaf-blindness, in which the individual's cognitive abilities are seriously reduced. However, under certain learning conditions, children with such disabilities are able to absorb knowledge, achieving high intellectual development. This would be impossible under conditions of inadequate reflection. The multifaceted nature of the reflective activity of the psyche makes it possible to compensate for the shortcomings of some forms of reflection at the expense of others, which are more intact.
- The next explanatory principlethe principle of determinism.From his position, mental phenomena are considered as causally determined, derived from external influences, which are reflected by the psyche. S.L. Rubinstein formulated it most accurately: an external cause always acts, refracting through an internal condition. The simplest understanding of the principle of determinism in special psychology is that there are no and cannot be causeless deviations in development. The reason may or may not be known, but it exists. Moreover, the same pathogenic factor can lead to different forms of deviations, as well as the fact that different causes can lead to the same type of developmental deviation. For persons with disabilities, training is also the most important way to correct existing impairments. Thus, the development of a special child is the point of application of opposing forces, designated as negative (main violation) and positive (training and correction) determinants. Both of them are refracted through “internal conditions”. It is these force proportions that can explain the seemingly strange cases of different rates of development with the same degree of severity of the same primary disorder in two children. The differences in such a situation are determined by the nature and timeliness of the correctional assistance provided to the child, which is largely capable of neutralizing or blocking the influence of pathogenic factors. Recently, the number of children with congenital neuropsychiatric diseases has been increasing. Thus, according to neonatologists, out of 10 infants, only 2 children have indicators corresponding to normal physiological and mental development. In such a situation, early assistance becomes relevant for families raising a child with developmental disabilities or developmental risks. As a result of correction at an early age, up to 30% of children reach normal levels by 6 months, and 90% have a lasting positive effect. This leads to a reduction in the proportion of children who will need special assistance at school age and reduces the degree of social disadvantage of disabled children.
- Genetic, or the principle of development. Its essence boils down to the proposition that all mental phenomena must be considered exclusively in a dynamic sense, i.e. in the process of development and formation. As one psychologist put it figuratively, the desire to consider the psyche outside of development is reminiscent of an attempt to cut water with scissors. Despite the presence of certain specifics, designated by the concept of “special method,” deviant development is characterized by the same thing that is characteristic of development in general: the permanent formation of quantitative and qualitative new formations, irreversibility, etc.
The use of the genetic principle implies consistency in the interpretation of a number of phenomena of deviant development. The uncritical borrowing of terms such as “developmental regression” and “arrest in development” by special psychology from child psychopathology contradicts the essence of the very concept of “development.” As already indicated, this process is fundamentally irreversible and continuous, already due to the time factor. Therefore, the terms “regression” and “cessation” in development are meaningless, because they capture phenomena that are absent in nature in general. However, without allowing for the possibility of reverse development of living systems in the field of biology, we easily recognize the existence of a similar phenomenon in relation to the psyche as a living self-regulating system. But what then stands behind these categories? When they talk about “stopping” development, we are talking about an extreme slowdown of this process to such an extent that the researcher objectively does not have enough time to wait for the appearance of certain changes that indicate progress. By the way, for quite a long time it was believed that mental retardation is a very slow development, which at a certain point in life stops altogether. It took many years of research to prove the opposite - its continuity in conditions of mental retardation. As for the phenomenon of “regression,” in this case we are dealing with decay, disorganization of one or another function against the backdrop of the psyche losing its integrity.. The phenomena of decay themselves are not included in the subject of special psychology, but form the content of such sciences as psychopathology and pathopsychology.
Speaking about the genetic principle, it is necessary to consider the concept systemogenesis the process of sequential development of symptoms of deviation in terms of age. These symptoms never appear all at once; they have a certain age-related dynamics. For example, a congenital or early acquired decrease in hearing acuity will in due time lead to a lag in speech development, which will inevitably affect the formation of thinking, voluntary regulation of behavior, and communication skills. A decrease in visual acuity in the first months of life may not manifest itself in any way, but starting from the fourth, it is detected in the peculiarities of orienting activity. Further effects of systemogenesis will be associated with a lag in the development of perception, motor sphere, etc.
Thus, symptoms of deviations should be considered as a dynamic formation as a natural process in the genetic plan.
- A subjective reflection of objective reality, its very existence is necessary for the regulation of behavior and activity. Another one of the most important explanatory principles of psychology is based on this position.the principle of unity of consciousness (psyche) and activity.
In its most general form, this principle boils down to the following: the psyche develops and manifests itself in the process of external material activity of a person, constituting its internal plan. Extremely simplifying the nature of the connection between the psyche and activity, we can say that the more accurately and deeply consciousness reflects the world around us, the more flexible a person’s behavior becomes and the more effective his activities. As well as vice versa: the more actively a person acts, the more accurate the nature of his reflection becomes. The activity approach also assumes that mental reality itself is considered as a special form of activity.
These principles create a certain framework of science that determines the nature of its content, which is fixed in its categorical structure. It should also be borne in mind that we considered the general methodological principles that determine the understanding of mental phenomena in normal and pathological conditions. But every applied discipline, in addition to general postulates, always has more specific ones. In our case, we are talking about specific methodological principles that set the direction for the study of deviations in mental development.
- Specific principles of special psychology: the principle of complexity, the principle of systemic structural-dynamic study, the principle of qualitative analysis, the comparative principle, the principle of early diagnostic study, the principle of identifying and taking into account the child’s potential, the principle of the unity of diagnostic and correctional assistance for children with special needs.
Briefly summing up all that has been said, let us turn to the basic principles of psychological examination of children with various forms of developmental disorders.The most common one iscomparative principlethe meaning of which is obvious: empirical data obtained in an experiment or observation are assessed as scientifically valid only if they are compared with similar factual material reproduced on a comparable sample of normally developing children. This condition is necessary, but not sufficient. The comparative principle also involves comparing data obtained on a specific group of children with similar results from studies conducted on children with a different form of impairment.
Despite all its formal simplicity, the technical implementation of this principle can be fraught with methodological difficulties. It is possible to correlate the results obtained in a comparative study only if the research procedure used in working with different groups of children is identical. Otherwise, such a comparison is incorrect. Achieving this kind of methodological identity can be very difficult, because the same specific technique, suitable for working with one group of children, may be completely invalid in relation to another. The introduction of modifications casts doubt on the very possibility of comparing results.
Another principle dynamic represents a logical continuation of the comparative. Adequate information about the nature of a particular deviation can be obtained as a result of conducting multiple time slices. The nature of the deviation, its originality and quality are reproducible only in dynamics.
The principle of comprehensive approach is as follows: in a psychological examination of children with disabilities, especially when interpreting the results obtained, the psychologist is obliged to take into account clinical data (neurological and somatic status, state of vision, hearing, speech, motor sphere, the possibility of a hereditary nature of the disorders, etc.). This, in turn, places high demands on his clinical erudition, which allows him to consider his own factual material not in isolation, but in a clinical context. Psychological data are also supplemented by the use of so-called paraclinical techniques, which have been increasingly used in the field of special psychology in recent years. We are talking about psychophysiological ones: electroencephalography, magnetoencephalography, positive emission tomography of the brain, oculography, electromyography, etc.
The principle of holistic, systemic study“involves, first of all, the detection of not just individual manifestations of mental development disorders, but connections between them, determining their causes, establishing a hierarchy of detected deficiencies or deviations in mental development...” (Lubovsky V.I. Psychological problems in diagnosing abnormal development of children. M., 1985, p. 51). System analysis in the process of psychological and pedagogical diagnostics involves establishing relationships between individual disorders and their hierarchy. It is very important that not only negative phenomena are identified, but also preserved functions and positive aspects of the personality, which will form the basis of corrective measures.
The implementation of this principle is possible only with a qualitative analysis of the obtained empirical facts.Focus on qualitative analysisrepresents another principle for studying children with developmental disabilities, but it does not deny the possibility of using quantitative comparisons using various statistical processing procedures: correlation, factor, cluster, variance analysis, etc.
The need for early diagnostic study allowsidentify and prevent the appearance of secondary layers of a social nature on the primary disorder and promptly include the child in correctional education.
Unity of diagnostic and correctional assistance to children with developmental disorders.The tasks of correctional pedagogical work can be solved only on the basis of diagnostics, determination of prognoses of mental development and assessment of the child’s potential capabilities.
Consistent implementation of the listed principles in combination with a clearly defined research task (goal), as well as a correctly formulated hypothesis, allows us to hope for the collection of adequate empirical results.
Conducting an experiment, obtaining empirical data in quantitative and qualitative form, their further statistical processing all these are just preliminary stagesThe main phase of any scientific research is the analysis of the extracted material.Its main content boils down to the answer to the question of what the information received says about this or that aspect of the psychological reality being studied. The analytical direction is set by a clearly defined problem, that is, the main research question and the presence of a hypothesis (or hypotheses) of assumptions, the correctness or error of which is tested in this research work.
- The concept of the scientific method. Methods of special psychology: Methods of collecting information. Conversation method. Observation as a method in special psychology, its originality in the process of studying individuals with special needs. Features of self-observation. Types and forms of experimental techniques used in special psychology. Features of using the experimental method. Standardized psychodiagnostic procedures and their use. Method of questionnaires and surveys. Method of analyzing activity products. Anamnestic method in the process of studying various forms of impaired development.
The scientific method is a historically established method of obtaining reliable facts, which, in the figurative expression of I. P. Pavlov, are “the air of any science.” The history of scientific knowledge has developed many methods, each of which has its own resolution capabilities, advantages and disadvantages, in comparison with other methods. In this sense, it is absurd to talk about good and bad methods, as well as about the search for one universal tool; it can only be effective if it is mastered perfectly. The use of a method, among other things, implies the ability to give an account of where and when it should be applied, how reliable data can be obtained with its help.
Psychology uses in its practicetwo groups of methods: general scientific and psychological.The first ones are used by most sciences, both natural and humanities, experiment, observation, conversation, analysis of activity products, survey, introspection, etc.
Special psychology uses general psychological methods, but their application has its own specifics, which have been studied quite widely (E.Z. Bezrukova, N.V. Belomestnova, N.L. Belopolskaya, I.M. Bgazhnokova, A.D. Vinogradova, S. D.Zabramnaya, I.A.Korobeinikov, I.Yu.Levchenko, V.I.Lubovsky, L.Pozhar, S.Ya.Rubinshtein, N.Ya.Semago, M.M.Semago, V.M.Sorokin, E. Heisserman, I.A. Shapoval, etc.). Also I.M. Bgazhnokova divided study methods into basic (observation, experiment) andauxiliary(conversation, test, questionnaire, analysis of activity products). Auxiliary methods are used to clarify the data obtained during research using the main methods.
The choice of method is determined by the objectives of the study. In the process of studying a child with developmental disorders, a specialist must set the following tasks: establish the characteristics of mental development; determine the structure of the mental defect; identify positive aspects of the psyche; outline optimal conditions for correctional education and training; determine the optimal educational route for the child.
Using basic research methods, it is possible to obtain psychological facts, quantitative and qualitative data about the mental development of a child.
Observation. In special psychology, it is of particular importance, since it is not always possible to conduct a psychological experiment due to the severity and severity of disturbances in the development of the subject; In addition, the focus on qualitative analysis of experimental data necessarily presupposes their supplementation with observational data.
The following requirements apply to conducting surveillance:
1. As comprehensive and accurate descriptions of the child’s behavior in a wide variety of situations as possible should be given.
2. Subjective interpretations and assessments must be avoided. In this case, we pay special attention to the so-called defect-centrism a complex attitudinal phenomenon leading to a mixture of age-related and individual characteristics of the child’s actions with clinical symptoms.
The psychological mechanisms of defect-centrism consist of apperception (the dependence of perception on life, in this case, professional experience) and anticipation (the ability to in some form foresee the development of events or phenomena). Since, as a rule, the specialist knows in advance about the developmental characteristics of the child he is going to study, he can begin to explain all the originality of his behavior by the presence of a defect. Thus, not only conclusions about the state of the subject are distorted, but also the observation process itself.
3. An accurate description of the fact, and not its interpretation, must be entered into the protocol, because the latter may be controversial. The reliability of judgments about the internal states of the observed individual requires repeated andimpartial registrationhis behavioral acts,not their interpretations. The process of interpretation itself is a complex intellectual act of analysis and synthesis of large factual material - the results of objective observation.
4. When describing, you should use words and terms that have the same meaning and exactly correspond to the observed phenomenon.
5. When making generalizations and conclusions from observations, all observational data should be taken into account.
When carrying out the observation process, it is necessary to remember that children with visual impairments show a certain restraint, mistrust, poor facial expressions, and emphasized discipline; their facial expressions and pantomimes often inadequately reflect their state of mind.
The deaf and hard of hearing exhibit exaggerated facial expressions and gestures, but their mechanically memorized, emotionally inexpressive speech does not provide reliable information about their feelings and experiences.
The isolation, clumsiness of movements of children with musculoskeletal disorders, their inherent overestimation or underestimation of their own personality often hide their real self.
Children with speech impediments react very sensitively to observation, and their speech impediments tend to get worse.
The most objective, compared to other categories, is the observation of children with intellectual disabilities. Even if they try to show themselves as different from what they really are, this can be easily seen, since they openly reveal their feelings and shortcomings. However, difficulties in interpreting observed behavior may arise due to poor speech, facial expression, and primitive gestures.
It must be taken into account that introspection in children with developmental disabilities it is even less objective than in healthy ones. For example, children and adolescents who were born blind and who lost their sight early do not have adequate knowledge about the visual signs of objects and phenomena in the surrounding world; for those who are deaf, their statements reflect speech deficiencies and originality of thinking; children with intellectual disabilities are incapable of accurate observations and reasoning; children and adolescents with musculoskeletal disorders do not have adequate orientation in space; with severe speech impairments, in the process of speaking about the results of self-observation, speech deficiencies can increase significantly.
The possibilities of using self-observation data in special psychology are also limited by the fact that self-awareness appears quite late in ontogenesis. Any form of dysontogenesis, to one degree or another, changes the content and time parameters of the formation of self-awareness. Therefore, in these cases, based on introspection data, we can only judge the presence of self-awareness and its individual qualitative characteristics, but we cannot qualify them as objective and reliable. The exception is cases of adulthood in combination with complete intellectual integrity.
Observation during a psychological examination (experiment)is possible only when using a special, pre-prepared diagram map using certain symbols. This allows, without attracting the child’s attention, to note the presence and intensity of the observed characteristics. I.A. Shapoval proposes the following observation protocol scheme.
Assessment of the child's appearance:body features, cleanliness of clothes, skin, complexion, special features. This information is important for subsequent analysis of age-physical development; analysis of the degree of attention of parents to the child, socio-cultural stereotypes of the family as a whole; about the emotional state of the child at the time of examination, etc.
Next comes general mood backgroundchild before the experiment and during the process of completing tasks, which is assessed according to many indicators: posture, degree of mobility, facial expressions and gestures, background mood and its changes depending on the success of completing experimental tasks and the course of the conversation, signs of neurotic manifestations. Each of the indicators is important; not a single one should be skipped in the protocol, since in itself it provides a lot of additional information. In particular, such an indicator as “signs of neurotic manifestations” trembling hands, twitching shoulders, stereotypical grimacing, biting lips or nails, sniffing, constantly shifting objects, fidgeting in a chair, rocking, etc. allows you to identify an increase in tension and anxiety when the child finds it difficult to complete the proposed tasks or has questions that affect affectogenic zones.
Then it is fixedgeneral and mental activity, which is identified by observing the following signs: energy and purposefulness of movements, facial expressions, gestures, or their randomness and convulsiveness, lethargy and fussiness.
Observing verbal manifestationsThe child includes an assessment of the intensity of the voice, its expressiveness or monotony, features of timbre coloring, the rate of speech and its changes during the performance of tasks, the degree of speech activity (from talkativeness to monosyllabic statements). There are also deficiencies in pronunciation, the presence of infantile words and phrases, and slang expressions. Presence of agrammatisms, echolalia, and slippage in speech.
The protocol reflects how the subject builds hisrelationship with a specialistduring the examination, asreacts to failure, to hints, comments or praise.
A special section of the observation protocol isinformation about emotional and volitional manifestationschild during experimental tasks: pace of work and its changes during the examination; degree of persistence in completing tasks; concentration or distraction; How soon do signs of fatigue appear? is the child trying to analyze the task facing him, to understand the goal, is he trying different solutions, or does he look helpless and confused.
Experiment. Determining the level of current development in ascertaining experiment allows you to reliably assess the degree to which a child lags behind the normative characteristics of a given age, determine which aspects of his psyche and behavior are more disturbed, and which remain more intact, in other words, put diagnosis , then organize adequate and targeted correctional assistance.
Formative (educational) experimentan integral part of differential diagnosis. Pre-planned, dosed assistance allows you to see and accurately measure the child’s progress in solving a problem, depending on the volume and form of assistance. In addition to diagnosis, it allows you to see forecast .
Requirements for conducting the experiment:
1. When starting an experiment, it is necessary to simulate the child’s usual mental activity.
2. It is necessary to develop a detailed implementation plan, taking into account the compliance of the task with the child’s ability to implement it. It is necessary to make sure that the subject understands the essence of the proposed task. For various reasons (sensory, speech, intellectual, emotional impairments), the instructions available to a normal child turn out to be incomprehensible to the child, so the task is completed incorrectly. In this case, a negative result does not reflect the capabilities of the child with developmental disorders, but the degree of accuracy of understanding the proposed task, which may be the cause of a diagnostic error.
3. The experimental procedure must be adequate to the child’s capabilities in terms of the nature of the stimulus material and the sequence of its presentation. For severe speech impairments, tasks that do not require speech reporting should be used. Instructions can be given in the form of demonstrating a sample of actions that the subject must repeat.
4. Children with OPFR are characterized by a lack of interest, a decrease in the level of general performance, rapidly developing fatigue and an associated feeling of emotional discomfort. That is why the experiment is carried out in a dosed, partial manner.
5. One should beware of arbitrary, unfounded interpretations. Therefore, when making any conclusion in conclusion, it is necessary to write down the facts (words or actions of the child) from which this conclusion follows. It would also be useful to test this conclusion using other techniques in a replication study. Single, non-repeating experimental facts very rarely have significant significance.
6. The organization of the experimental procedure requires taking into account the state of the child’s motivational sphere: its instability and low level of cognitive interests may be the real reason for the extreme dispersion of the obtained indicators for the same subject. During the experiment, it is necessary to create a favorable emotional environment in order to eliminate the feeling of shyness, awkwardness and other side factors.
7. The progress of the experiment is reflected in the protocol, which indicates brief information about the subject, the time of the experiment, and a detailed test of everything that happens. For example, mentally retarded children not only violate the work order prescribed by the instructions, but sometimes they also act outside the framework of the situation - they play with aids, hide them in their pockets, and perform actions opposite to those that they are asked to perform. Such actions should not be considered as a failure of the experiment; this is very valuable and important material, provided that it is carefully recorded.
8. When processing the received data, in addition to the methods of mathematical statistics, it is necessary to use high-quality processing of the received data. It is not so important whether the task is solved or not, what is the percentage of completed and uncompleted tasks, the main ones are qualitative indicators that provide information about the method of completing tasks, the type and nature of errors, the child’s attitude to his mistakes and the experimenter’s critical comments.
The leading experiment in special psychology is undoubtedly the formative (educational) experiment; it allows you to see what types of help are available to the child and make a qualitative analysis of the experimental material. For example,“Cut picture” technique.
Target: learning the ability to create a whole from parts; assessment of the formation of mental operations of analysis and synthesis.
Types of assistance:
Stimulating assistanceencouragement, praise (try to do it, you’ll succeed) or (that’s right, well done, you’re trying, keep going). Necessary if the child is not self-confident and needs approval.
Organizing assistanceorganization of attention at some point in the task (take your time, look carefully). It is necessary when the child’s attention is not stable or he is quickly distracted.
Explanatory help- clarifying the order of actions when completing the task (look carefully at the details of the picture again, remember what you must collect, connect these parts so that you get a whole object).
Introduction of visibilitywhen putting together a picture of 3-5 parts, the specialist takes two suitable parts, connects them together, without explaining the algorithm for performing the action, then invites the child to continue assembling on his own.
The second option for visual and effective help is to show a picture with a whole image of the object.
Specific training assistancethe psychologist shows the child the most characteristic details of the object being assembled, clarifies in which part of the image they are located (above, below, in front). Then he outlines a plan for assembling the image (for vertical images from bottom to top, for horizontal from left to right). Together with the child, he collects a picture. After training, the child is asked to complete the task independently.
Thus, during the experimental procedure, the child can and should be assisted. Among forms of assistance S.Ya. Rubinstein, and after her I.A. Shapoval is distinguished:
Simple questioning, a request to repeat this or that word (attracting the subject’s attention to what was said or done);
Approval and stimulation of further actions, for example, “good”, “further”;
Questions about why the subject did this or that action (help in clarifying one’s own thoughts);
Leading questions or critical objections from the experimenter;
A hint, advice to act in one way or another;
Demonstration of an action and a request to repeat it yourself;
Step-by-step training to complete the task.
Providing assistance has general rules : first check whether more minor forms of assistance will not be sufficient, and only then resort to demonstration and training; the specialist should not be verbose or overly active; his intervention in the work of the subject must be deliberate, stingy, and rare; every act of intervention, i.e. assistance must be included in the protocol, as well as the responses and statements of the subject.
No less productive than other methods are the methods of conversation and collection of psychological history.
Conversation. The child’s withdrawal from the topic of conversation, attempts to talk about something else, sudden isolation, formal monosyllabic answers all these are highly diagnostic signs.
Requirements for conducting a conversation:
1. The topics of the conversation with the child depend on the specific objectives of the examination; they should cover the main areas of his life: family, kindergarten, interests, communication, the child’s opinion about himself, his capabilities and abilities. Topics that are important for achieving the goal of the study are examined in more detail, for example, the range of ideas about the environment, the stock of information, the features of orientation in space, time, natural phenomena and social life, awareness in certain areas.
2. It is necessary to take into account that the child may get tired and lose interest in the content of the conversation, therefore, it should not be excessively long.
3. Conversation as a method can be used with children who have a sufficient level of oral speech development. The conversation method is used in children under four years of age and with a low level of speech development to a limited extent, since their verbal answers are still condensed.
4. In special psychology, it is necessary to possess certain skills to conduct a conversation with certain groups of children with dysontogenesis (sign language, alternative communication).
5. It is necessary to accurately determine the purpose, main content of the conversation, the nature and sequence of the proposed questions, which are formulated during the preparation process. The conversation is prepared in advance; children are asked questions in the same sequence. It is conducted by a trained specialist who enters the children’s answers into the protocol verbatim and records the emotional reactions and intonations of the subject. When processing the received material, children's statements are interpreted and correlated with other data.
6. At the beginning of getting to know a child, it is convenient to start a conversation with simple business questions (“What is your name? How old are you? Who are you friends with?”). This approach usually calms the child. As a result, he quickly comes into contact with the experimenter.
7. The final stage of the conversation is carried out after the experimental study. The specialist finds out which tasks the child liked and which ones he did not; what was difficult and what was easy; How the child evaluates his progress. Based on the answers, ideas about the child’s personal characteristics (self-esteem, level of aspirations, criticality, etc.), his emotional and volitional manifestations are clarified.
The following requirements apply to the questions that make up the conversation:
1. The questions asked must be clear.
2. When formulating a question, you should avoid uncommon words and words with double meanings.
3. Questions should not be too long.
4. Double questions should be avoided.
5. The question should be formulated in such a way as to avoid a template answer.
6. The question should not inspire the child with a certain answer.
Most often carried out in the form of a conversationcollection of psychological history- history of the child’s mental development. Talking with parents, caregivers, and other adults who know the child can provide a lot of valuable information. The difficulty is that this data is not structured. It is often difficult for parents to highlight the main thing; many confuse the medical history with the history of their child’s mental development. That is why it is necessary to accurately guide the story, asking specific questions about the stages and aspects of development. Anamnestic information can be significantly supplemented if the history of the child’s development is reproduced by different people (father and mother, one of the parents and the teacher, etc.). When collecting a psychological history during a conversation with parents, you need to remember that the topic regarding the specificity of their child can be sensitive. Therefore, the formulation of questions must be extremely delicate.
Collecting anamnesis in the process of working with teachers is always more productive due to their professional training, but they tend to consider development in the context of the learning process, which makes the anamnesis somewhat one-sided.
A few words about other auxiliary methods and the possibilities of their use in special psychology.
Questionnaires (questionnaires)most often used in working with parents and teachers. A clear identification of the components of behavior, emotional reactions and states, and characteristics of activity allows parents (teachers) to analyze in sufficient detail the everyday, typical manifestations of the child’s mental life. Self-questioning of children with developmental disabilities is possible only starting from adolescence and has its own specifics, expressed in the technical side of the process. For example, a questionnaire survey of blind people can only be carried out if the text is translated into a special writing system (L. Braille); the absence of outside assistance for children with intellectual disabilities does not always guarantee correct understanding of the questions in the questionnaire (therefore, special requirements are imposed on the wording of questions), etc. Filling out a questionnaire by a psychologist violates confidentiality and reduces the level of reliability of the material received.
Standardized methods (tests)can be used with certain restrictions, in the form of an auxiliary tool with the leading role of the experimental approach and qualitative analysis of the obtained material.
Firstly, the parameters of the test standards themselves (form, speed of delivery of instructions, etc.) are always correlated with the capabilities of a person with standard psychophysiological characteristics. Consequently, a child with developmental disorders finds himself in a situation that does not correspond to his capabilities, and the assessment of his results does not reflect the level of the ability being diagnosed, but the inadequacy of diagnostic conditions for the characteristics of the subject.
V.I. Lubovsky emphasizes that the tests are not suitable for identifying the specifics of mental retardation associated with the originality of the defect. For example, they cannot detect differences between the psychological characteristics of a child with mental retardation and with impaired speech development with intact intellectual development capabilities.
Secondly, most standardized methods record the final result of the activity and reflect only the current level of development of the subject. To practice special psychology, we also need information about the zone of proximal development. As V.M. Sorokin rightly notes, not only the effectiveness of differential diagnosis depends on this, but also the directions of correctional work and the assessment of its productivity. Solving these problems is possible only through an experimental strategy and, above all, a formative experiment.
Testing requirements:
1. Testing of children with developmental disabilities should, in principle, be carried out only individually, and exceptional attention should be paid to trial tasks to fully ensure that the instructions are understood correctly.
2. When testing subjects, it is necessary to provide appropriate motivation, since low results are often caused by a lack of interest or low motivation - the child’s disinterest in completing the task.
3. High results should be considered valid (reliable), while low ones should be treated more skeptically; they can be caused by difficulties in completing the task due to a defect, insufficient understanding of the task, weak motivation of the subject, and finally, the inexperience of the psychologist.
4. Psychodiagnostic testing should be used as an auxiliary method, always complementing other methods, long-term observation, conversation, experiment.
Study of activity productsof the child, in combination with the psychological and pedagogical characteristics of the child, indicators of his academic performance, allows the teacher to establish the nature and causes of difficulties in learning, outline measures to improve academic performance, and rely on the positive qualities of the child’s personality and activities in further correctional work.
The use of projective techniques is quite problematic due to their low differential diagnostic resolution, which, of course, does not close the way for their use as an auxiliary methodological tool in educational institutions. The main theoretical problems of using these techniques in special psychology are the problems of the originality of deviations at the level of the unconscious, how and in what way the process of projection changes in different forms of dysontogenesis; what aspects of mental reality are reproduced in the process of projection in conditions of impaired development ordinary hidden experiences or dysontogenetic symptoms, etc.
In foreign psychodiagnostics, isolated attempts have been made to create special projective techniques for children with disabilities. For the blind, a three-dimensional apperception test (haptic analogue of the Rorschach test) and an auditory apperception test (auditory version of the TAT) were constructed, but they were not widely used.
When examining children with developmental disabilities, the interpretation of their drawings must be treated very carefully. Thus, children with impairments in manipulative functions, visual perception, and spatial impairments often draw deformed figures and “lose” small details; the image of facial details is often disproportionate. With pronounced violations of the body diagram (for example, with cerebral palsy), the details of the figure can be scattered throughout the sheet, and if the orientation in the plane of the sheet is disturbed, the image can be placed in one of the corners, often in the lower right. These features of the drawing are associated with a violation of higher mental functions due to organic damage to the brain or analyzers, and not with personality traits, that is, the projective significance of such a drawing is absent.
The drawings of children with intellectual disabilities are specific. They find it difficult to choose a topic and resort to depicting familiar, similar objects without creating a plot. There is no design or imagination in their drawings on a free theme. Even when given a task to draw, they do not always follow the instructions. Poverty and vagueness of ideas are manifested in non-compliance with the shapes and proportions of parts of an object, in a limited and not always correct use of color. Children find it difficult to explain the drawing. Depending on the degree of intellectual decline, these deficiencies are less or more pronounced.
The drawings of children with mental illness are unique. They are characterized by illogicality and absurdity of the image; inappropriate, erratic use of color, incongruity of proportions, sexual expression. Patients with schizophrenia are characterized by incompleteness, absence of main parts, geometrization, pretentiousness, heaps and layers, inconsistency between the design of the drawing and the size of the sheet, fear of drawing far from the edge, flattening of the drawing. Epileptic dementia is characterized by excessive care, excessive scrupulousness, severe slowness, and difficulty switching. Children spend a lot of time drawing and get stuck drawing out individual unimportant details. It is difficult for them to highlight the main thing; the drawings are stereotypical.
Literature
- C Orokin, V.M. Special psychology: Textbook / under scientific. ed. L.M. Shipitsyna / V.M. Sorokin. St. Petersburg: “Speech”. 2003. 216 p.
- Sorokin, V.M. Workshop on special psychology: Educational and methodological manual./ Under scientific editorship. L.M. Shipitsina / V. M. Sorokin, V. L. Kokorenko. - St. Petersburg: “Rech”, 2003. 122 p.
- Shapoval, I.A. Special psychology: Textbook / I.A. Shapoval. M.: TC Sfera, 2005. 224 p. (Tutorial).
- Pozhar, L. Psychology of abnormal children and adolescents pathopsychology/ L. Pozhar. - Publishing house "Institute of Practical Psychology", Voronezh: NPO "Modek", 1996. - 128 s.
Glossary:principle of reflectivity, determinism, unity of consciousness and activity, genetic principle, specific principles, method, conversation, observation, experiment. questionnaires and surveys, analysis of activity products, anamnestic method.
Questions:
1. Philosophical and general psychological principles of special psychology.
2. Specific principles of special psychology.
3. The concept of the scientific method.
4. Methods of special psychology.
Literature:
1. Kolesnikova G.I. Special psychology and pedagogy / G.I. Kolesnikova.-2nd edition, revised. And additional – Rostov n/a: Phoenix, 2010.-250 pp.- (Higher education).
2. Slepovich E.S. Special psychology: textbook. allowance / E.S. Slepovich; edited by E.S. Slepovich, A.M. Polyakova.-Minsk: Higher school, 2012.-511 p.
3. Sorokin, V.M. Special psychology: Textbook / under scientific. ed. L.M. Shipitsyna / V.M. Sorokin. – St. Petersburg: “Speech”. 2003.
4. Sorokin, V.M. Workshop on special psychology: Educational and methodological manual./ Under scientific editorship. L.M. Shipitsina / V. M. Sorokin, V. L. Kokorenko. - St. Petersburg: “Rech”, 2003.
5. Shapoval, I.A. Special psychology: Textbook / I.A. Shapoval. – M.: TC Sfera, 2005.
1. Methodological special psychology is based on the principles of dialectical materialism. They form the philosophical basis of ideas about the cultural and historical conditioning of the human psyche, the formation of mental processes under the influence of social factors, the indirect nature of these processes, and the leading role of speech in their organization.
Principles:
· determinism;
· development (genetic);
· unity of consciousness and activity;
· reflectivity.
The principle of determinism very important for understanding developmental disorders. The core of determinism is the position of the existence of causality, i.e. such a connection of phenomena in which one phenomenon (cause), under certain conditions, necessarily gives rise to another phenomenon (effect). In psychology, determination is understood as a natural and necessary dependence of the characteristics of mental development on the factors that generate them. Causality is a set of circumstances that precede and cause an effect. (Yaroshevsky M.G., 1972)
The principle of determinism states: mental phenomena are caused by objective activity and reflect this reality; mental phenomena are caused by brain activity; The study of mental phenomena presupposes the establishment of the causes that caused this phenomenon.
Determinism cannot be viewed as a unilinear system (cause-effect). It is not limited to such purely causal connections. There are determinants that do not themselves generate events, but influence them (catalysts). In real mental life, the effect does not arise immediately after the cause, but after some time. As a result, the cause of this or that phenomenon may be events or factors that do not immediately cause consequences, but their accumulation leads to a certain shift. These are so-called cumulative cause-and-effect relationships. It is through such mechanisms that most mental development disorders in children arise.
Principle of development (genetic principle) represents the position according to which the psyche can be correctly understood only if it is considered in continuous development. All mental phenomena are constantly changing and developing in quantitative and qualitative terms. L.S. Vygotsky attached great importance to the principle of development. He, however, spoke about the historical principle, but explained that historical study means the application of the category of development to the study of phenomena. To study something historically means to study it in movement, in development. It is believed that L.S. Vygotsky was the first to introduce the historical principle into the field of child psychology. The principle of development involves the analysis of developmental disorders, taking into account the age stage at which the disorder arose and the previous deviations on which it was layered. In special psychology, this principle is implemented primarily in psychological activity. When describing the qualitative and quantitative characteristics of a disorder, it is important to take into account its dynamics: a tendency to progression or stabilization.
The principle of activity is associated with the idea that the psyche is formed in activity. This principle in a broad philosophical sense means the recognition of activity as the essence of human existence. In activity, the conditions of existence of individual people and society as a whole are created and changed. In special psychology, this principle is given great importance; activity is understood as a transformative activity generated by needs, during which the process of communication arises and cognition is carried out.
Activity is the interaction of subjects that generates the process of communication;
Activity is the interaction of subject and object, ensuring the process of cognition.
The principle of the unity of consciousness and activity is a statement that unity is inseparable and that consciousness forms the inner plane of human activity. S.L. Rubinstein interprets this principle as the manifestation and formation of consciousness in activity. When studying children with disabilities and deviations in development, the principle of unity of consciousness and activity is realized in the fact that the child’s activity is considered as an important criterion for the level of his development. In addition, this principle is implemented in the methodology of psychocorrectional classes, which are based on the child’s objective and practical actions. The principle of the unity of consciousness and activity implies that consciousness is the regulator of human behavior. However, the main thing, according to A.N. Leontyev, is not at all to point out the active, controlling role of consciousness. “The main problem is to understand consciousness as a subjective product, as a transformed form of manifestation of those relations that are social in nature, which are carried out by human activity in the objective world” (Leontyeva A.N., 1982).
The principle of reflectivity. Its essence boils down to the fact that all mental phenomena, in all their diversity, represent a special, higher form of reflection of the surrounding world in the form of images, concepts, and experiences. The fundamental properties of mental reflection are its subjectivity, activity, selectivity and purposefulness. No, even the most severe pathological disturbances of mental activity will change its reflective essence. We can only talk about reducing the degree of adequacy of reflection, turning an adequate reflection into a false one, as, for example, with hallucinations.
2.Specific principles- principles of psychological examination of children with various forms of developmental disorders.
Principles:
· complexity;
· systemic structural-dynamic study;
· qualitative analysis;
· comparative;
· early diagnostic study;
· unity of diagnostic and correctional care for children with special needs.
The principle of complexity dictates the need for cooperation between specialists from different fields in the examination of children with atypical development. Each specialist records in the impaired development of the child and the rationale for helping him those features that fall within the scope of his competence. The data is entered into a professional examination scheme and can be summarized in a unifying table, which contains the results of the child’s examination with other specialists. A multidimensional study of a child with atypical development provides a cumulative result that allows us to identify the causes of pathology, approach the interpretation of its mechanisms and justify assistance. Implementation of the principle of complexity in practice means that specialists from different fields must begin to provide assistance to children with developmental atypia jointly and act in parallel, coordinating solutions to an interrelated range of tasks.
The principle of systemic structural-dynamic study. The highlighted principle is based on the ideas of B.G. Ananyev, B.F. Lomova and others. This principle requires defining the hierarchy in mental development disorders, as well as analyzing each of the components of the child’s activity (motivation, orientation, execution and control of the result).
Principle of qualitative analysis involves focusing the researcher's attention on the child's actions to complete the task and his behavior during the examination (methods of completing the task and making decisions, the type of mistakes, the child's attitude towards his mistakes and the comments of adults) as opposed to focusing only on the result. Qualitative analysis allows us to find out what level of organization of mental activity the defect is associated with. Such an analysis makes it possible to determine whether a certain symptom is a sign of a primary disorder in mental development or a consequence of an existing defect.
Comparative principle. The meaning of the principle: empirical data obtained in an experiment or observation are assessed as scientifically valid only if they are compared with similar factual material reproduced on a comparable sample of normally developing children. This condition is necessary, but not sufficient. The comparative principle also involves comparing data obtained on a specific group of children with similar results from studies conducted on children with a different form of impairment.
Another principle - dynamic - represents a logical continuation of the comparative one. Adequate information about the nature of a particular deviation can be obtained as a result of conducting multiple time slices. The nature of the deviation, its originality and quality are reproducible only in dynamics.
The principle of early diagnostic study allows you to identify and prevent the appearance of secondary layers of a social nature on the primary violation and promptly include the child in correctional education.
The principle of unity of diagnostic and correctional care for children with special needs. The tasks of correctional pedagogical work can be solved only on the basis of diagnostics, determination of prognoses of mental development and assessment of the child’s potential capabilities.
3. The scientific method is a historically established method of obtaining reliable facts, which, in the figurative expression of I. P. Pavlov, are “the air of any science.” The history of scientific knowledge has developed many methods, each of which has its own resolution capabilities, advantages and disadvantages, in comparison with other methods. In this sense, it is absurd to talk about good and bad methods, as well as about the search for one universal tool; it can only be effective if it is mastered perfectly. The use of a method, among other things, implies the ability to give an account of where and when it should be applied, how reliable data can be obtained with its help.
4. 1.Methods of collecting information
Information collection methods provide preliminary acquaintance with the child, identification of the problem and indicative data for diagnosing his development.
These methods include:
· Study of documentation for the child (drawings, crafts, school work);
· Observation of the child;
· Conversation with the child, his parents and teachers;
· Experiment (ascertaining and formative);
Studying the documents is of great importance, as they contain anamnestic information about the child. In this way, specialists of various profiles receive information about the origins of developmental disorders and its dynamics. Medical reports on the development of the child, his state of health, the functioning of organs and systems that may be responsible for mental development disorders in a particular case are analyzed. Studying the characteristics of a child by teachers is important for forming an opinion about the extent to which the child can take advantage of the help of adults and about the pace of his development during learning.
Studying the products of children's activities (creative works) and academic performance in various subjects gives an idea of the current level of development. This is a subjective-objective method. Objectivity is demonstrated when assessing the development of motor and sensory skills and the speed of assimilation of educational material. Subjectivity takes place when interpreting drawings and other creative works that reflect the child’s attitude to reality and his problems.
To increase the objectivity of performance assessment, it is necessary to take into account:
· Psychological mechanisms for obtaining results;
· Skills, the development of which involves training;
· Typical difficulties in mastering school knowledge by different groups of students.
The observation method allows you to record the spontaneous activity of the child, his natural mental manifestation.
In the process of observation, it is important to be able to distinguish between the facts themselves, relationships to them, understanding the facts and their consequences.
The most important task of observation is recording facts and their objective description. The main problem in applying the observation method is to identify its objects and ensure that the results of observation are recorded in such a way that when “reading” the observation protocol, it is clear to all professionals involved in the process of interaction with the child’s problems.
Conversation is a method of collecting information according to a pre-compiled program in the process of personal communication. In special psychology, two types of conversation are used: with the child and with adults significant to the child.
The main problem in constructing a conversation is the selection of the content and form of questions that meet the purpose of the study and are understandable to the child.
A conversation with a child is used to establish contact with him and get a general idea of his development. The conversation program is built taking into account the age and intelligence of the child.
A conversation with adults is used to collect anamnestic data about the child and to identify adults’ attitudes towards the child’s problems.
The testing method is a psychological diagnosis through standardized tasks. The testing process can be divided into 3 stages: selecting a test, conducting it, and interpreting the results.
Among psychological tests, a special place is occupied by projective techniques - a method of (disguised testing) indirect study of personality based on the result of psychological interpretation of the projection.
Questioning methods are aimed at obtaining information about a person or group through indirect communication; the subject answers the experimenter’s questions by filling out a questionnaire.
Conclusion : When studying various aspects of the development of a child’s psyche in each case, it is important to understand what exactly is being studied, how it is being studied, what is revealed in this way, what the data obtained indicate and what should be done based on the results of the study.
In psychodiagnostics of children with developmental disabilities, one should be guided by the principles of the interrelationships of the methods used.
2. Information processing methods
Modern psychology includes among these methods all methods of analyzing and interpreting received information (classifying facts, constructing theoretical models, creating typologies), as well as methods of mathematical statistics (correlation analysis, factor analysis).
The choice of information collection methods is largely determined by theoretical orientation.
Pathopsychological analysis
The subject of study is disorders of the child’s cognitive activity: disorders of perception, memory, thinking.
In special psychology, pathopsychological analysis is used to study the structure of cognitive activity of mentally retarded children and allows solving the problems of their selection into auxiliary schools.
The study of mental development disorders from the perspective of pathopsychology takes place in a clinical orientation - the cause of these disorders is considered to be a “defect”, which is understood in the traditional defectological and/or psychiatric sense.
Neuropsychological analysis
The neuropsychological research method, built on the principle of qualitative analysis of mental disorders, allows us to reveal the structure of intellectual activity, deficiencies in the development of thought processes and the reasons that determine them, as well as help to establish a person’s potential capabilities.
The method makes it possible to compare disorders from the point of view of the primary and secondary nature of their occurrence and to describe the system-dynamic restructuring of mental activity in the process of ontogenesis from the position of its cerebral support.
3. Prevention methods
Psychoprophylaxis is a system of measures to eliminate factors that have a harmful effect on the human psyche, and the use of factors that have a positive effect on the psyche.
An important task lies in the early diagnosis of mental illnesses and their treatment at the initial stage.
There are primary, secondary and tertiary psychoprophylaxis.
Primary psychoprophylaxis should begin in the prenatal period and accompany all stages of the child’s development, providing conditions for the greatest psychological comfort for the formation of his personality. It helps prevent social deprivation, school maladjustment, family conflicts, personal crises and helps create a favorable environment for the development of the child’s psyche, facilitating his upbringing and education.
Secondary psychoprophylaxis consists of early detection of mental development disorders, monitoring the child’s condition and providing him with urgent assistance. For these purposes, psychodiagnostics of the child and family is carried out, as well as initial psychocorrectional work with the child; prevention of tertiary psychoprophylaxis is aimed at preventing relapses of developmental disorders. As a method, it is carried out in the form of psychological support for the child and assistance to the family in various types of his education and socialization. This prevention takes into account the child’s personality characteristics.
Tertiary psychoprophylaxis is aimed at preventing relapses of developmental disorders. As a method, it is carried out in the form of psychological support for the child and assistance to the family in various types of his education and socialization. This prevention takes into account the child’s personality characteristics.
4.Methods of influence
Psychological influence is understood as “changes in the psychological characteristics of an individual, group norms, public opinion or mood through the use of psychological, socio-psychological patterns” (Kabachenko T.S.)
When working with a child or family, the psychological impact takes on the nature of interaction and turns into a two-way process.
Psychocorrection is a method of psychological influence on a person, aimed at those psychological mechanisms of his interaction with the environment that disrupt social adaptation. In special psychology, psychocorrection is the main method of influence.
Psychocorrection is a way of joint activity between a specialist and a child to solve specific problems related to the characteristics of the child’s mental development and his interaction with the environment.
Psychocorrection is a system of psychological measures aimed at correcting, weakening or replenishing existing deficiencies in the mental development of children.
There are general, private and special psychocorrection.
General psychocorrection implies activities that normalize the child’s social microenvironment, regulating his psychophysical or emotional stress in accordance with his age and individual capabilities.
Private psychocorrection is a set of psychological and pedagogical influences, both by means used in psychotherapy and psychocorrection of adults, and specially designed for children and adolescents.
Special psychocorrection– a system of measures to influence a child or a group of children of the same age in order to form certain mental functions and types of activities, correct certain personality traits.
Related information.
1) PRINCIPLE OF PERSONAL APPROACH to a child with developmental problems. In the process of psychological assistance to a child with psychophysical disorders, no particular function or isolated mental phenomenon is taken into account, but the personality as a whole with all its individual characteristics is considered
2) CAUSAL PRINCIPLE. Psychological assistance to children with developmental disorders should be more focused not on the external manifestations of developmental deviations, but on the actual sources that give rise to these deviations. The implementation of this principle helps to eliminate the causes and sources of deviations in the mental development of a sick child.
3) PRINCIPLE OF COMPLEXITY. Psychological assistance can only be considered in a complex of clinical, psychological and pedagogical influences. Its effectiveness largely depends on taking into account clinical and pedagogical factors in the development of the child. (For example, a psychologist must have complete information about the causes and specifics of the child’s illness, upcoming treatment tactics, length of hospitalization, and prospects for medical rehabilitation).
4) PRINCIPLE OF THE ACTIVITY APPROACH. Psychological assistance should be carried out taking into account the leading type of activity of the child. (For example, if this is a preschooler, then in the context of play activities, if a schoolchild, then in educational activities).
In addition, in correctional work it is necessary to focus on the type of activity that is personally significant for the child and adolescent. This is especially important when working with children with severe emotional disturbances.
The effectiveness of psychological assistance depends to a large extent on the use of productive activities of the child (drawing, designing, etc.).
5) PRINCIPLE OF DEVELOPMENT. The category of development, which is central in domestic and foreign psychological science, acts as an important methodological principle of psychology. The process of development in psychology is considered as a complex cumulative process. Each subsequent stage of mental development includes the previous one, transforming at the same time. The quantitative accumulation of changes prepares for qualitative changes in mental development.
The principle of development should be the basis of any type of activity in working with children with developmental problems, from diagnosis to psychodevelopmental and corrective measures.
1. PRINCIPLE OF DETERMINISM very important for understanding developmental disorders. The core of determinism is the position of the existence of causality, i.e. such a connection of phenomena in which one phenomenon (cause), under certain conditions, necessarily gives rise to another phenomenon (effect). In psychology, determination is understood as a natural and necessary dependence of the characteristics of mental development on the factors that generate them.
According to the principle of determinism, each developmental atypia is caused by a specific relationship of biological and social factors and is unique in the mechanisms of its occurrence.
Methods of special psychology.
1) Individual and group laboratory psychological experiment is the active intervention of the researcher in the activity of the subject in order to create conditions that reveal any psychological fact
2) Observation - purposeful perception of the object of study, which consists in recording the manifestations of behavior and obtaining judgments about subjective mental phenomena.
3) Study of the products of activity (analysis of children’s written works, study of drawings, objects produced by them in the process of labor training)
4) Questioning - a group of psychodiagnostic techniques, the tasks are presented in the form of questions and statements and are intended to obtain data from the words of the subject.
5) Projective techniques - intended for personality diagnostics, they allow one to assess the level of intellectual development, characterological characteristics and current emotional states.
There are: structuring techniques, i.e. forming stimuli, giving them some meaning; design techniques are the creation of a meaningful whole from parts; interpretation techniques are the interpretation of any events or situations; completion techniques - for example, unfinished sentences; expression techniques - for example drawing; catharsis techniques - play activities in specially organized conditions; impression techniques - preference for some stimuli over others.
6) A learning experiment is a form of natural experimentation, which is characterized by the fact that the study of certain mental processes occurs through purposeful formation. At the same time, with the help of this method, not only the current state of knowledge, skills and abilities is revealed, but also how many features from formation.
7) Conditioned reflex
8) Analysis of functional relationships - the relationships between dependent variables and independent variables are studied.
Branches of special psychology
1. Psychology of the mentally retarded (oligophrenopsychology).
Oligophrenopsychology is a branch of special psychology that studies mental development and the possibilities of its correction in mentally retarded people with severe forms of brain underdevelopment.
2. Psychology of the deaf (psychology of the deaf).
Deaf psychology - (psychology of the deaf) - a section of special psychology that studies the mental development of deaf and hard of hearing people, the possibility of its correction in the conditions of training and education, in particular in the conditions of special education.
3. Psychology of the blind (typhlopsychology).
Typhlopsychology - (psychology of the blind) - a section of special psychology that studies the patterns of development of mental activity of an individual with completely or partially impaired vision
2. The place of special psychology in the system of sciences. Intrasystem and interdisciplinary connections.
Having emerged at the intersection of medicine, psychology and defectology, special psychology retains its status as a frontier science. Being at the intersection of other sciences leads to uncertainty in the position of any new science; each of the “parent” disciplines often considers it as its own component.
Intrasystem communications
Special and general psychology stem from the similarity of their definitions, methods, and conceptual apparatus. But if general psychology studies the most general patterns of mental activity, the structure and development of the psyche in the norm, then special psychology studies such patterns in atypical (deviant and disturbed) development.
Special and developmental psychology They are brought together by the commonality of their object - the developing person. But if developmental psychology studies the age-related dynamics of the human psyche, the ontogenesis of mental processes and psychological qualities, then special psychology studies the formation of mental neoplasms in conditions of specific socialization - a violation of the interaction of the individual with the environment.
WITH educational psychology Particularly intensive interaction occurs when establishing patterns of mastery of knowledge, skills, abilities by children with atypia, when studying changes in their psyche in the process of educational work.
Solving the problems of integrated education for children with developmental disorders required socio-psychological research and thereby created the preconditions for mutual penetration social and special psychology. The arsenal of fundamental provisions of special psychology has been enriched with ideas about the specifics of communication and interaction of people with atypia; in the same context, studies of the personal characteristics of this contingent are being conducted.
Interdisciplinary connections
Relationship of special psychology and pedagogy is expressed in the fact that scientific research in the field of special psychology is mainly aimed at ensuring the educational process of children with developmental disorders.
No less close are the connections special psychology with medicine. They are determined by a common object of study (a subject with congenital and acquired deviations and mental development disorders), but differ in the subject of study.
Relationship special psychology and psychiatry leads to a deeper understanding of the psychopathological consequences of atypical development. The definition of special psychology as a psychological science implies its delimitation from clinical disciplines (neuropathology, psychiatry). Clinical disciplines study the etiology and pathogenesis of diseases, the appearance and alternation of symptoms and syndromes, predict diseases, engage in their treatment and prevention.
3. Tasks of special psychology (according to V.I. Lubovsky).
IN tasks of special psychology includes:
ü study of the patterns and characteristics of the mental development of children and adults with various mental and physical disabilities in different conditions, and above all in the conditions of correctional education; creation of methods and means of psychological diagnosis of developmental disorders;
ü development of means of psychological correction of developmental deficiencies;
ü psychological justification of the content and methods of training and education in the system of special educational institutions;
ü psychological assessment of the effectiveness of the content and methods of teaching children with developmental disabilities in different conditions;
ü psychological study of social adaptation of persons with disabilities;
ü psychological correction of maladjustment.
Currently, the most pressing task is the development of diagnostic techniques, since this area remains poorly illuminated.
In the period that began after the end of the Great Patriotic War, the system of educating children with developmental disabilities was constantly improved in the direction of increasing differentiation and more complete coverage of special education for children with developmental disabilities of different categories. If in the pre-war period there were three main types of special schools (for the mentally retarded, for the deaf and for the blind), today there are eight main types of such schools, in which 15 different curricula and programs are implemented. In addition, there are special classes in general schools and, on a limited scale, integration of children with certain developmental disabilities into regular classes is carried out. The system of special preschool institutions is also deeply differentiated.
4. Principles of special psychology. The concept of “systemogenesis”.
The principles of special psychology are presented in two groups:
General scientific principles
The principle of reflectivity. Its essence boils down to the fact that all mental phenomena, in all their diversity, represent a special, higher form of reflection of the surrounding world in the form of images, concepts, and experiences.
The principle of determinism. From his position, mental phenomena are considered as causally determined, derived from external influences, which are reflected by the psyche.
Development principle. Its essence boils down to the proposition that all mental phenomena must be considered exclusively in a dynamic sense, that is, in the process of development and formation.
The principle of the unity of consciousness and activity. The psyche develops and manifests itself in the process of external material activity of a person, making up its internal plan.
Specific principles of special psychology
- The principle of complexity assumes that the discovery of deep internal causes and mechanisms of occurrence of a particular deviation is carried out by a group of specialists (doctors, speech pathologists, speech therapist, psychologist, social teacher). Not only clinical and experimental psychological study of the child is used, but also other methods: analysis of medical and pedagogical documentation, observation of the child, socio-pedagogical examination, and in the most difficult cases - neurophysiological, neuropsychological and other examinations.
The principle of systemic structural-dynamic study is based on the idea of the systemic structure of the psyche and involves an analysis of the results of mental activity at each of its stages. System analysis in the process of psychological diagnosis involves not only identifying individual disorders, but also establishing the relationship between them, their hierarchy.
The principle of qualitative analysis of the results of a psychodiagnostic study of a child.
Systemogenesis (Greek systema - connection with one whole + genesis - origin, development) - selective and accelerated in the rate of development of structural formations of different localizations, which, consolidating into a single functional system, ensure the adaptive existence of the organism, its survival. It is a consequence of long-term phylogenetic development and the consolidation by heredity of the most progressive forms of adaptation; systemogenesis at the same time makes it possible to understand the patterns of transformation of organs and structures of the body throughout ontogenesis. The concept of systemogenesis was developed by P.K. Anokhin.
5. Basic principles of psychological examination of children with various forms of developmental disorders.
Comparative principle, the meaning of which is obvious: empirical data obtained in an experiment or observation are assessed as scientifically valid only if they are compared with similar factual material reproduced on a comparable sample of normally developing children.
Another principle is dynamic represents a logical continuation of the comparative. Adequate information about the nature of a particular deviation can be obtained as a result of conducting multiple time slices.
The principle of an integrated approach is as follows: in a psychological examination of children with disabilities, especially when interpreting the results obtained, the psychologist is obliged to take into account clinical data (neurological and somatic status, state of vision, hearing, speech, motor sphere, the possibility of a hereditary nature of the disorders, etc.).
The principle of holistic, systemic study“involves, first of all, the detection of not just individual manifestations of mental development disorders, but the connections between them, the determination of their causes, the establishment of a hierarchy of detected deficiencies or deviations in mental development.
6. Analysis of the specifics of methods of special psychology in comparison with methods of other branches of psychology.
Method is a path of scientific research or a way of understanding any reality, consisting of a set of techniques or operations carried out by a researcher when studying an object.
In special psychology none any special, special research methods. In it, as in general, child and educational psychology, individual and group laboratory psychological experiments, observation, and study of the products of activity are used (for example, analysis of children’s written work, study of their drawings, objects produced by them in the process of labor training, etc.) , questionnaires, projective techniques, tests, training experiments, conditioned reflex techniques are also used.
An important methodological problem of special psychology is the development and application nonverbal psychological techniques. Since several categories of children with developmental disabilities have significant deficiencies in verbal speech that make it difficult for them to understand verbal instructions and answer tasks in verbal form, it is difficult, if not impossible, to determine the level of mental development of these children using verbal tasks.
The exact opposite situation occurs when studying children with profound visual impairments. The use of visually perceived tasks becomes impossible. Some tasks of a visual nature can be presented in relief form, perceived tactilely. However, not all techniques can be converted in this way. Therefore, they become much more important than in the study of persons with normal vision. verbal tasks and their special selection, taking into account the uniqueness of the speech of the blind.
A very common feature of many children with developmental disabilities, which leaves its mark on the results of the experiment and requires consideration both when organizing it and when interpreting the data obtained, is the immaturity of their motivational sphere, its instability, and low level of cognitive interests. The connection between the motivational and operational components of mental activity is well known. Both high and low interest of the subject during the experiment can lead to a decrease in its effectiveness. It is instability that may be the true reason for the extreme dispersion of the obtained indicators for the same subject. This means that the organization of the experimental procedure inevitably requires taking into account the state of the motivational sphere of the subject.
7. Features of the conversation method, the method of collecting psychological history in special psychology.
Conversation acts both as an addition to the experiment and completely independently. Its implementation requires high professionalism. First of all, the psychologist must establish good contact with the child, create an atmosphere of trust and safety. The interlocutor must feel an interested attitude towards himself. You should simply and clearly explain the reason why you are having this conversation with him. The questions asked must be clear. Here it is also necessary to accurately determine the purpose, the main content of the conversation, the nature and sequence of the proposed questions, which are formulated during the preparation process. The psychologist tactfully directs the conversation in the right direction if the person being studied wanders off to the side, and reformulates the questions if they turn out to be unclear. During the conversation, the emotional reactions and intonations of the subjects are recorded. The conversation should not be excessively long, because the child may get tired and lose interest in its content. The use of this method in special psychology sometimes requires special skills from a specialist. Thus, when working with the deaf, a good knowledge of fingerprint and sign language is necessary.
In this form it is most often carried out collection of psychological history- history of the child’s mental development. Conversations with parents, teachers, caregivers and other adults who know the child can provide a lot of valuable information. The difficulty is that this data is not structured. It sometimes seems to a novice psychologist that he should ask parents a question about how their child developed, and he will receive a detailed answer. Experience shows that this is not always the case. It is often difficult for parents to highlight the main thing; many confuse the medical history with the history of their child’s mental development. That is why the psychologist must accurately guide their story, asking specific questions about the stages and aspects of development. Anamnestic information can be significantly supplemented if the history of the child’s development is reproduced by different people (father and mother, one of the parents and the teacher, etc.). When collecting a psychological history during a conversation with parents, the psychologist should not forget that the topic concerning the specificity of their child can be very painful for them. Therefore, the formulation of questions must be extremely delicate. A conversation is idle curiosity and non-mechanical recording of information about the child.
Collecting anamnesis in the process of working with teachers is always more productive due to their professional training. Nevertheless, certain difficulties arise here too. Educators tend to view development in the context of the learning process, which makes the anamnesis somewhat one-sided.
8. Experimental method in special psychology.
Conducting an experiment in special psychology is dosed and portional in nature. The organization of an experimental procedure inevitably requires taking into account the state of the motivational sphere of the subject. The reasons for the lack of interest may be a lack of understanding of the meaning of the proposed task, as discussed above, a decrease in the level of general performance, rapidly developing fatigue and the associated feeling of emotional discomfort. The experimenter must remember this and prevent the development of fatigue in advance.
The experimental method is divided into individual and group; laboratory and natural; stating and formative. All of the above types of experimental work are used in one way or another in special psychology, but preference is given to the individual form. The exception is those situations when such socio-psychological phenomena as communication, attitude, interpersonal perception, etc. are chosen as the object of study. Both laboratory and natural experiments are of equal importance, although the latter is more effective in working with children with developmental disabilities. preferable due to the above-mentioned features of the motivational sphere.
Of great importance formative experiment (activation of the “zone of proximal development” according to L.S. Vygotsky). The procedure itself consists of simulating a learning situation. The experimenter provides the child with various forms of dosed assistance.
9. Features of observation and self-observation methods in special psychology. The concept of “defect-centrism”.
Observation in special psychology is given special importance, since in a number of cases it is not always possible to organize and carry out a traditional experimental procedure due to the severity and severity of a particular disorder in the development of the subject.
Observation, due to the passive position of the researcher in relation to the object of knowledge, certainly loses to experiment in terms of time costs. But it also has a very important advantage. An experiment, no matter what form it is implemented in, always carries an element of artificiality, which cannot but affect the nature and quality of the results. Observation reproduces the object of study in natural conditions, which increases its ecological validity.
Surveillance can be effective if it meets a number of requirements. First of all, it must be targeted, that is, the researcher does not observe the entire diversity of an individual’s behavior, but selects only certain fragments necessary for study. Another important feature of the observation process is its objectivity.
In special psychology, this method is associated with additional difficulties. First of all, time costs increase significantly due to the increasing complexity of behavioral acts. It takes a wealth of clinical experience and knowledge, as well as a very long time, to see a pattern, “logic” in the pattern of behavior of a child with developmental disabilities.
Self-observation method in special psychology it occupies by no means a privileged place. For quite a long time the attitude towards him was extremely negative. Intolerance towards introspectionism and phenomenology was automatically transferred to this technique, which was denied scientificity and reliability. At the same time, the obvious fact of the exclusive role of self-observation in the organization and regulation of behavior and activity was ignored. Nevertheless, in the process of a conversation or questionnaire, we are dealing precisely with the results of the subject’s self-analysis.
Another difficulty in organizing and conducting the observation process can be conditionally defined as "defect-centrism". The meaning of this artificially constructed term is as follows. As a rule, the observer knows in advance about the disadvantage of the child he is going to study. It is this knowledge that creates an attitude that distorts the process of observation - all the originality of the behavioral pattern is entirely explained by the main violation. “Defect-centrism” is a complex attitudinal phenomenon that leads to a mixture of age-related and individual characteristics of a child’s actions with clinical symptoms.
10. The use of standardized techniques (tests) in special psychology.
IN In the area of special psychology, standardized methods are traditionally used very widely, since this is where they first appeared. But the use of test technologies requires high professionalism and caution.
First of all, difficulties arise in relation to the standardization, the strictly unified nature of the entire test examination, starting from the invariability of the wording of instructions, the time for completing a particular task, and the quality of the stimulus material. The parameters of the standards themselves (form, speed of delivery of instructions, its content, as well as metric characteristics of the stimulus material) are always correlated with the capabilities of a psychophysiologically normal person. Therefore, from the very beginning of the test examination, a child with developmental disabilities finds himself in a situation that does not correspond to his capabilities.
The limited use of testing technologies is also associated with the content components of studying individuals with developmental disabilities. A test, as a rule, records the final result of some activity. Himself the process of obtaining it remains unavailable for analysis. And for the practice of special psychology, it is not the knowledge itself about a low result that is important, but an understanding of the reasons that gave rise to it.
The vast majority of standardized technologies reflect only the current level of mental development of the subject, zone of its actual development. But for the practice of special psychology and especially correctional pedagogy, this is not enough: it is necessary to have a prognosis, information about the child’s potential capabilities, about his zone of proximal development. Not only the effectiveness of differential diagnosis depends on this, but also the direction of correctional work and the assessment of its productivity. Solving these problems is possible only through an experimental strategy and, above all, a formative (educational) experiment.
All of the above should not be taken as a complete denial of standardized technologies in general. Standardized methods in special psychology can be used with certain restrictions, in the form of an auxiliary tool with the leading role of the experimental approach and qualitative analysis of the obtained material.
11. General and modality-specific patterns of mental development in children with ontogenetic disorders.
Deviating development is normal development, but occurring in unusual (unfavorable) conditions, the pathogenic power of which exceeds the compensatory capabilities of the individual.
General patterns of mental development:
The development process is permanent positive changes associated with the emergence of high-quality new formations.
The development process is continuous and irreversible.
The internal mechanisms of development are the unity of the processes of differentiation and integration.
The principle of unity of evolution and functioning..
Mental development is carried out in the process of various forms of objective activity.
Mental development is not possible without communication.
Modally specific patterns - characteristics characteristic of a certain group of children with disabilities, for example, the mental development of children with hearing impairments. In other words, this is what distinguishes one group from another.
The problem is how to correlate general and specific patterns - whether to consider them as two independent series, or to recognize the specific as a special form of manifestation of the same general ones. For a long time, the first option prevailed in special psychology. Differences between normally developing children and children with disabilities were given importance, while similarities were considered unimportant. The absolutization of differences could not but affect the practice of teaching and raising children with various disabilities, and the nature of society’s attitude towards them.
12. Modal-nonspecific patterns of mental development in children with ontogenetic disorders.
Modal-nonspecific The patterns of mental development of children with ontogenetic disorders are associated with those qualities that are observed in all groups of children with developmental disorders; this is what they have in common, and at the same time what distinguishes them all from normally developing children.
Features of modal-nonspecific patterns:
Slowing down the pace of age-related development, changing the timing of the transition from one phase to another. The slowdown is either stable or variable. It can affect the development of the psyche as a whole and its individual aspects.
The speed of receiving and processing incoming information slows down. This implies impaired sensory systems, in relation to which this would be obvious and natural. We are talking about intact sensory systems, for example visual in deaf and hard of hearing children.
A general decrease in mental activity, which is widely noted by many researchers in relation to a variety of groups of children with disabilities. First of all, cognitive activity suffers, which causes a narrowing of the stock of knowledge and ideas about the world around us and about ourselves.
Disproportion between the directed and spontaneous sides of development. At the early stages of ontogenesis, spontaneous development clearly dominates in comparison with directed development. That is why the initial shortcomings in this area subsequently have a retarding effect on the pace of targeted development.
Underdevelopment of all or some forms of objective activity. These violations within one type of activity can be total in nature, spreading to all its structural components, or affect only some of them
Almost all groups of children with disabilities experience underdevelopment of motor skills. In turn, this leads to a slowdown in the formation of various motor skills, the automation of which requires a lot of time and effort.
In conditions of deviant development, a child can achieve the same or almost the same level of performance as a normally developing child, but the effort he expends is significantly higher than normal.
Disadvantages of verbal mediation of behavior and mental activity in general.
13. Basic properties of higher mental functions.
Higher mental functions- specifically human mental processes. They arise on the basis of natural mental functions, due to their mediation by psychological tools. HMF include: perception, memory, thinking, speech. The concept of higher mental functions was introduced by L. S. Vygotsky and subsequently developed by A. R. Luria, A. N. Leontyev, A. V. Zaporozhets, D. B. Elkonin and P. Ya. Galperin.
VPF properties:
Complexity is manifested in the fact that HMFs are diverse in terms of the characteristics of formation and development, in the structure and composition of conventionally identified parts and connections between them. In addition, complexity is determined by the specific relationship of some results of human phylogenetic development (preserved in modern culture) with the results of ontogenetic development at the level of mental processes. Over the course of historical development, man has created unique sign systems that make it possible to comprehend, interpret and comprehend the essence of the phenomena of the surrounding world. These systems continue to develop and improve.
Sociality of the VPF determined by their origin. They can only develop through the process of people interacting with each other. The main source of occurrence is internalization, i.e. transfer (“rotation”) of social forms of behavior to the internal plane. Interiorization carried out during the formation and development of external and internal relationships of the individual. Here, HMFs go through two stages of development. First, as a form of interaction between people (interpsychic stage). Then as an internal phenomenon (intrapsychic stage). Teaching a child to speak and think is a vivid example of the process of internalization.
Mediocrity HMF is visible in the way they function. The development of the ability for symbolic activity and mastery of a sign is the main component of mediation. A word, image, number and other possible identifying signs of a phenomenon (for example, a hieroglyph as the unity of word and image) determine the semantic perspective of comprehending the essence at the level of unity of abstraction and concretization.
Arbitrary VPFs are based on the method of implementation. Thanks to mediation, a person is able to realize his functions and carry out activities in a certain direction, anticipating a possible result, analyzing his experience, adjusting behavior and activities. The arbitrariness of the HMF is also determined by the fact that the individual is able to act purposefully, overcoming obstacles and making appropriate efforts. The conscious pursuit of a goal and the application of effort determines the conscious regulation of activity and behavior. We can say that the idea of HMF comes from the idea of the formation and development of volitional mechanisms in a person.
14. Structure of impaired development.
Dysontogenesis, as a special method of development, retains all its basic properties and characteristics. That is why it is wrong to identify impaired development with a disease, although such a view is still often encountered. The most structured ideas about the parameters of dysontogenesis in modern psychology were formulated by V. V. Lebedinsky.
Parameters of dysontogenesis
Functional localization of the disorder, divided into private and general. The first is characterized by a disorder of individual functions - perception, objective actions, speech, attention, etc. General disorders are manifested in dysfunctions of different aspects of regulatory systems.
Another parameter of dysontogenesis is associated with the age of a person at which he developed this or that disorder. The earlier in age a child develops a disorder, the more severe its consequences, and vice versa.
The third parameter is the age dynamics of interfunctional connections.
Idea structural organization dysontogenesis belongs to L. S. Vygotsky.
Primary, or nuclear, disorders represent slightly reversible changes in the operating parameters of a particular function caused by the direct influence of a pathogenic factor.
Secondary or systemic disorders have a different nature and properties, representing reversible changes in the development of mental functions directly related to the initially impaired one. Hence the name itself - systemic disorders, that is, the insufficiency of certain functions that arises as a result of the currently existing system of interfunctional connections.
The severity of secondary disorders decreases as direct connections are replaced by indirect ones.
The concept is often used in the literature tertiary disorders , by which they mean disorders of various aspects of the psyche that do not have direct connections with the primary damaged function.
The relationship between primary and secondary symptoms of impaired development is characterized by another feature, designated by the term vectorality, which refers to the direction of spread of secondary disorders. There are two types of vectorality - “bottom-up” and “top-down”. The first type is characteristic of a situation in which some elementary function is primarily disrupted, and the more complex ones that are built on top of it are secondarily underdeveloped.
The structure of impaired development does not remain unchanged with age. Its dynamics can be both negative and positive.
15. Mechanisms of formation of systemic disorders in mental development
Systemic disorders of mental functions call deviations in the nature of their development, the main reason for which is a direct connection with another or with other functions damaged due to the influence of various traumatic or pathogenic factors.
Understanding impaired development in the context of the cultural and historical genesis of human consciousness constitutes the most important contribution of L. S. Vygotsky to the development of special psychology. From the standpoint of this concept, the emergence of systemic deviations is due to the fact that any primary violation interferes with the process of assimilating the human experience of socialization, the child’s growing into the culture of society, because all social institutions are one way or another designed for normal, standard psychophysiology. This is what gave L. S. Vygotsky the basis to consider these disorders as a social dislocation, as a phenomenon of a child falling out of culture, which is the real cause of deviations from the normal course of development. Difficulties in assimilating universal human experience can be overcome to a certain extent by creating workarounds, establishing new connections with the social world while relying on the child’s intact capabilities.
The mechanism for the formation of systemic deviations presented in its most general form is not the only one. The other is related to sensitive periods of formation of different aspects of the psyche. The principle of operation of this mechanism in general terms is as follows. At the moment of action of a pathogenic factor, first of all, the aspects of the psyche that are in the phase of the most intensive development are disrupted. In this case, dysfunctions of functions not directly related to the initially damaged ones may be observed.
Communication is the most important condition for the development of higher mental functions. The latter, as L. S. Vygotsky pointed out, are formed during life in their genesis, arbitrary in the method of regulation and indirect in structure. Difficulties that arise in the process of communication, characteristic of almost all groups of children with developmental disabilities, inevitably slow down the process of their development. The described mechanism for the manifestation of systemic deviations could be designated as communicative.
Activity mechanism formation of system deviations. The psyche acts as a special regulator of external objective activity, forming its internal plan. That is why disturbances in the process of mental development, as a rule, inevitably lead to a lag in the rate of formation of psychomotor skills, objective actions and various types of activities. But, being the internal plane of any external activity, the psyche itself is transformed. Therefore, deficiencies in the development of various types of activity lead to a slowdown in the rate of mental development, thereby creating a vicious circle where cause and effect alternately change places. A specific manifestation of this mechanism can be considered a violation of the process of formation of mental actions.
Deprivation mechanism. The uniqueness of the life situation of most children with developmental disabilities is characterized by the influence of several types of deprivation. Among them, primary, or clinical, are associated with impairments of vision, hearing, speech and motor activity. Social deprivation, manifested in a narrowing of the circle of contacts, is especially typical for the period of preschool childhood. It is not uncommon to experience a situation of emotional deprivation associated with a cold and indifferent attitude towards a child in the family. Such conditions can have a negative impact on both the emotional and cognitive development of the child.
16. Basic approaches to solving the “norm-pathology” problem.
The literature notes that the concept of “norm”, especially “mental norm”, is a problem difficult to define.
Approaches to the concept of “norm”:
The norm as ideal and as fiction (A.W. Kneucker);
The norm is the maximum option;
The norm is a statistical average;
Norm as a symbol of an objectively existing phenomenon;
Norm as an adaptation to the external environment;
The norm as a functional optimum.
Traditionally, in medicine and clinical psychology, the most common approach was the norm to